Latest revision as of 07:37, 24 January 2022

introduction

phonology

consonants

Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes.

Consonants
	Labial	Alveolar		Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	m (m)	n (n)		ɲ (ny)
Plosive	p~b (p)	t~d (t)			k~g (k)	ʔ ( ' )
Affricate		ts~t͡ʃ (ts)	t͡ɬ~tl (tl)
Continuant		s~ʃ (s)	l~ɾ (l)			h~ɦ (h)
Semivowel				j (y)	w (u)

The glottal stop is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.

Prenasalized: /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
Labialized:/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
Palatalized: /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/

free variation

Because of its small phoneme inventory, Kala allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.

Sound Changes

The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/. The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, sama (sun; star; solar) is /ˈʃaːma/ where sitsa (heat; hot) is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and tsisi (embroider; embroidery) is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.

vowels

Vowels
	Front	Back
Close	i~ɪ (i)	u~ʊ (u)
Mid	e~ɛ (e)	o~o: (o)
Open	a~ɑ (a)

Kala has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. tsunka [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').

diphthongs

Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] ai and [aʊ̯] ao, but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] ua, [we] ue, [ja] ya, [je] ye, and [jo] yo. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] uai and [jaʊ̯] yao are very rare but should be noted as possible.

phonotactics

The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) (N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i) where (N) indicates nasalization, and u and y indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.

There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by Kala phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as tata for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).

When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by –u, which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be tsuala’u meaning “to become prosperous”, from tsuala “prosper; be prosperous” and the suffix –la meaning “become; change into”, used to indicate the mutative.

gemination

Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. naka (woman) can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas nakkan (chieftess) can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.

syllables

Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings –m (indicating general plural, deriving from ma, meaning “and, also”), -n (indicating accusative case, deriving from no, meaning “thing, object”), and –k (indicating negative mood, deriving from nke, meaning “no, not”).

syllable chart

the 136 basic Kala syllables
	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo	ai	ao	uai	yao
p	(m)pa	(m)pe	(m)pi	(m)po	(m)pu	pua	pue	pya	pye	pyo	pai	pao	puai	pyao
t	(n)ta	(n)te	(n)ti	(n)to							tai	tao
k	(n)ka	(n)ke	(n)ki	(n)ko	(n)ku	kua	kue	kya	kye	kyo	kai	kao	kuai	kyao
m	ma	me	mi	mo	mu	mua	mue	mya	mye	myo	mai	mao	muai	myao
n	na	ne	ni	no	nu	nua	nue	nya	nye	nyo	nai	nao	nuai	nyao
s	sa	se	si	so	su	sua	sue				sai	sao	suai
h	ha	he	hi	ho	hu	hua	hue	hya	hye	hyo	hai	hao	huai	hyao
ts	tsa	tse	tsi	tso	tsu	tsua	tsue				tsai	tsao	tsuai
tl	tla	tle	tli	tlo							tlai	tlao
l	la	le	li	lo							lai	lao
-	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo	ai	ao	uai	yao

Syllables such as nsa, ntla, or ntsa can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The A-O columns are called mpalo and are the most common, the U-YO are called puhyo, the AI-YAO/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as paihyao.

collating order

The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the Naua script.

Consonants	p	t	k	m	n	s	h	ts	tl	l
Vowels	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo

Based on this order, ma would come before ha, etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. mpa comes after pyo but before ta. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the lexicon. This order can be vocalized as “pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”, this aides in memorization and organization.

stress

Stress generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is de facto initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-= Orthography =
+= introduction =
-* Kala conscripts are many and varied. Rather than multiple pages explaining each of them, [[Kala/writing|'''this''']] page serves as a working list with a consistent example across each script. The most commonly used script is the Hangul adaptation for Kala.
+= phonology =
-= Morphology =
+== consonants ==
+* Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
-Kala is a mostly [[wp:Agglutinative language|agglutinative]] language that makes extensive use of compounding, incorporation and derivation. That is, it can add many different [[wp:Prefix (linguistics)|prefixes]] and [[wp:Suffix|suffix]]es to a [[wp:Root (linguistics)|root]] until very long words are formed, and a single word can sometimes constitute an entire sentence.
+{|class=wikitable style="text-align: center; width:40%;"
+|+Consonants
+!
+!Labial
+!colspan=2|Alveolar
+!Palatal
+!Velar
+!Glottal
+|-
+! Nasal
+| m ('''m''')
+|colspan=2|n ('''n''')
+| ɲ ('''ny''')
+|
+|
+|-
+! Plosive
+| p~b ('''p''')
+|colspan=2|t~d ('''t''')
+|
+| k~g ('''k''')
+| ʔ (''' ' ''')
+|-
+! Affricate
+|
+| ts~t͡ʃ ('''ts''') || t͡ɬ~tl ('''tl''')
+|
+|
+|
+|-
+! Continuant
+|
+| s~ʃ ('''s''') || l~ɾ ('''l''')
+|
+|
+| h~ɦ ('''h''')
+|-
+! Semivowel
+|
+|colspan=2|
+| j ('''y''')
+| w ('''u''')
+|
+|}
-== Verbs ==
+The [[wp:Glottal_stop|glottal stop]] is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.
+* '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
+* '''Labialized''':/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
+* '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/
+=== free variation ===
+Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of [[wp:Free_variation|allophonic variation]]. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.
-=== Stative verbs ===
+=== Sound Changes ===
+The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/.  The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, '''sama''' (''sun; star; solar'') is /ˈʃaːma/ where '''sitsa''' (''heat; hot'') is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and '''tsisi''' (''embroider; embroidery'') is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.
-A large proportion of intransitive verbs are stative verbs, taking over the role of English adjectives. Examples are [[Kala/lexicon#ta|'''taha''']] ''"be big"'' and [[Kala/lexicon#a|'''ahi''']] ''"be small"''.  This type of verb is most often used in non-predicative situations, performing an adjective-like function. With intransitive verbs it describes the subject; with transitive verbs it usually describes the patient or theme and is thus roughly comparable to a passive participle in meaning. Essentially, Kala does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives.
+== vowels ==
+{| class="wikitable"
+|+Vowels
+!
+!'''Front'''
+!'''Back'''
+|-align=center
+!'''Close'''
+|{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~ʊ}} '''(u)'''
+|-align=center
+!'''Mid'''
+|{{IPA|e~ɛ}} '''(e)''' || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)'''
+|-align=center
+!'''Open'''
+|colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~ɑ}} '''(a)'''
+|}
-==== Relative ====
+'''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
-In a relative clause, the verb has the suffix '''-tle''' (or '''-le''' if the final syllable contains /tl/) added to it. The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses. The use of participles in Kala is rather different than in English and at first sight is difficult to understand. This is mainly due to the fact that the relative pronouns ''who, what, which, where'' are not used in Kala as in English.
-* '''yalapa''' - ''to be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapatle''' - ''who/which/that can walk''
+=== diphthongs ===
-* '''yalapak''' - ''to not be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapanketle''' - ''who/which/that can't walk''
+Phonetically, '''Kala''' has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] '''ai''' and [aʊ̯] '''ao''', but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] '''ua''', [we] '''ue''', [ja] '''ya''', [je] '''ye''', and [jo] '''yo'''. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] '''uai''' and [jaʊ̯] '''yao''' are very rare but should be noted as possible.
-{{col-begin}}
-{{col-break}}
-This nominalizes the verb in some cases, and makes it possible for it to be either the subject or the object.
-* '''na ke tlaka nya inama talatle unya'''
+== phonotactics ==
-: <small>1sg O man for eat-time come-REL know</small>
+The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) '''(N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i)''' where '''(N)''' indicates nasalization, and '''u''' and '''y''' indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.
-: ''I know the man who is coming to lunch.''
-* '''ke naka patlole pako'''
+There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as '''tata''' for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).
-: <small>O woman sweep-REL young</small>
-: ''The woman who is sweeping is young.''
-{{col-break}}
-The relative suffix is most often in the final position. In some cases, it may be followed by the negative '''-k'''.
-* '''itsaka na sutahuetle'''
+When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by '''–u''', which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be '''tsuala’u''' meaning ''“to become prosperous”'', from '''tsuala''' ''“prosper; be prosperous”'' and the suffix '''–la''' meaning ''“become; change into”'', used to indicate the mutative.
-: <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-REL</small>
-: ''This is the house in which I live.''
-* '''itsaka na sutahueyetlek'''
+=== gemination ===
-: <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-PST-REL-NEG</small>
+Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. '''naka''' (''woman'') can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas '''nakkan''' (''chieftess'') can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.
-: ''This is the house in which I did not live.''
-{{col-end}}
-=== Adpositionals ===
+=== syllables ===
-Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. There is one general locative (-'''hue''') which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”. Here are some common verbs used as [[wp:Preposition_and_postposition|adpositions]]:
+Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings '''–m''' (indicating general plural, deriving from '''ma''', meaning ''“and, also”''), '''-n''' (indicating accusative case, deriving from '''no''', meaning ''“thing, object”''), and '''–k''' (indicating negative mood, deriving from '''nke''', meaning ''“no, not”'').
-{{Col-begin}}
-{{Col-2}}
-* '''pahe''' - against; touching
-* '''pa'e''' - apart from; other than; except for
-* '''paye''' - beyond; exceeding; farther than
-* '''pue''' - after; back; behind; rear
-* '''tahe''' - below; beneath; under
-* '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at [moving toward]
-* '''kaye''' - around; encircling; surrounding
-* '''mahe''' - around; approximate; close to
-* '''ma'a''' - with [accompanied by / furnished with]
-* '''ma'e''' - before; in front
-* '''maye''' - between; among
-{{Col-2}}
-* '''nahe ''' - in [located inside of]; internal
-* '''nyaue''' - outside of; exterior to
-* '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
-* '''saye''' - along; following [a line]
-* '''hue / -hue''' - at [in the same location as] [LOC]
-* '''tsa'e''' - across; through
-* '''ua'e''' - above; over / on
-* '''uaye''' - from [moving out of or away from]
-* '''ya'e''' - near; close to
-* '''yomo''' - to the right of
-* '''yoso''' - to the left of
-{{Col-end}}
-* '''na ke ito yamahue anyapa'''
+=== syllable chart ===
-: <small>1sg O tree hill-LOC see-ABIL</small>
+{| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;"
-: ''I can see a tree on the hill.''
+|+the 136 basic Kala syllables
+|-
+!
+! a
+! e
+! i
+! o
+! u
+! ua
+! ue
+! ya
+! ye
+! yo
+! ai
+! ao
+! uai
+! yao
+|-
+! p
+| align="center"|''(m)pa''
+| align="center"|''(m)pe''
+| align="center"|''(m)pi''
+| align="center"|''(m)po''
+| align="center"|''(m)pu''
+| align="center"|''pua''
+| align="center"|''pue''
+| align="center"|''pya''
+| align="center"|''pye''
+| align="center"|''pyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''pai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''pao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''puai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''pyao''</font>
+|-
+! t
+| align="center"|''(n)ta''
+| align="center"|''(n)te''
+| align="center"|''(n)ti''
+| align="center"|''(n)to''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tao''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+|-
+! k
+| align="center"|''(n)ka''
+| align="center"|''(n)ke''
+| align="center"|''(n)ki''
+| align="center"|''(n)ko''
+| align="center"|''(n)ku''
+| align="center"|''kua''
+| align="center"|''kue''
+| align="center"|''kya''
+| align="center"|''kye''
+| align="center"|''kyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kuai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kyao''</font>
+|-
+! m
+| align="center"|''ma''
+| align="center"|''me''
+| align="center"|''mi''
+| align="center"|''mo''
+| align="center"|''mu''
+| align="center"|''mua''
+| align="center"|''mue''
+| align="center"|''mya''
+| align="center"|''mye''
+| align="center"|''myo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''mai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''mao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''muai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''myao''</font>
+|-
+! n
+| align="center"|''na''
+| align="center"|''ne''
+| align="center"|''ni''
+| align="center"|''no''
+| align="center"|''nu''
+| align="center"|''nua''
+| align="center"|''nue''
+| align="center"|''nya''
+| align="center"|''nye''
+| align="center"|''nyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nuai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nyao''</font>
+|-
+! s
+| align="center"|''sa''
+| align="center"|''se''
+| align="center"|''si''
+| align="center"|''so''
+| align="center"|''su''
+| align="center"|''sua''
+| align="center"|''sue''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''sai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''sao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''suai''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+|-
+! h
+| align="center"|''ha''
+| align="center"|''he''
+| align="center"|''hi''
+| align="center"|''ho''
+| align="center"|''hu''
+| align="center"|''hua''
+| align="center"|''hue''
+| align="center"|''hya''
+| align="center"|''hye''
+| align="center"|''hyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''hai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''hao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''huai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''hyao''</font>
+|-
+! ts
+| align="center"|''tsa''
+| align="center"|''tse''
+| align="center"|''tsi''
+| align="center"|''tso''
+| align="center"|''tsu''
+| align="center"|''tsua''
+| align="center"|''tsue''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsuai''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+|-
+! tl
+| align="center"|''tla''
+| align="center"|''tle''
+| align="center"|''tli''
+| align="center"|''tlo''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlao''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+|-
+! l
+| align="center"|''la''
+| align="center"|''le''
+| align="center"|''li''
+| align="center"|''lo''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''lai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''lao''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+|-
+! -
+| align="center"|''a''
+| align="center"|''e''
+| align="center"|''i''
+| align="center"|''o''
+| align="center"|''u''
+| align="center"|''ua''
+| align="center"|''ue''
+| align="center"|''ya''
+| align="center"|''ye''
+| align="center"|''yo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''ai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''ao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''uai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''yao''</font>
+|}
-* '''ntahim nyaue tsaka yoti'''
+<small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The '''A-O''' columns are called '''''mpalo''''' and are the most common, the '''U-YO''' are called '''''puhyo''''', the '''AI-YAO'''/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as '''''paihyao'''''.</small>
-: <small>child-PL outside.of house play</small>
-: ''The children are playing outside of the house.''
-= Word formation =
+=== collating order ===
+The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the [[Kala/writing#Naua|'''Naua''']] script.
-== Compounding ==
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
+! Consonants
+| '''p'''
+| '''t'''
+| '''k'''
+| '''m'''
+| '''n'''
+| '''s'''
+| '''h'''
+| '''ts'''
+| '''tl'''
+| '''l'''
+|-align=center
+! Vowels
+| '''a'''
+| '''e'''
+| '''i'''
+| '''o'''
+| '''u'''
+| '''ua'''
+| '''ue'''
+| '''ya'''
+| '''ye'''
+| '''yo'''
+|-align=center
+|}
-New nouns are usually created through head-initial compounding, using both nominal and verbal stems as the second, dependent element of the compound. The resulting lexical entries usually behave as single phonological words, which, however, have four full syllables: '''kuatlatloha''' "grass snake". Compounding of more than two elements is not common.
+Based on this order, '''ma''' would come before '''ha''', etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. '''mpa''' comes after '''pyo''' but before '''ta'''. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]]. This order can be vocalized as ''“pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”'', this aides in memorization and organization.
-* '''kayapusu''' - "earthquake" > '''kaya''' - earth + '''pusu''' - vibrate
+== stress ==
-* '''asuaseka''' - "leather" > '''asua''' - skin + '''seka''' - dry
+[[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;
-There are also numerous [[Kala/affixes|'''affixes''']] used to form new meanings. A few examples are;
+* '''<u>ma</u>sa''' - /ˈmaːsa/ → '''ma<u>sa</u>ko''' - /maːˈsako/
+* '''tli<u>ya</u>ma''' - /tɬiːˈjama/ → '''tliya<u>ma</u>lo''' - /tɬiːjaˈmalo/
+* '''kam''' - /kaːm/ → '''<u>ka</u>myo''' - /ˈkaːmʲo/
+* '''empa<u>ha</u>pak''' - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → '''empaha<u>pa</u>yek''' - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/
-* '''tiyasu''' - "bakery" > '''tiya''' - bread + '''-su''' - market; shop
+= orthography =
-* '''onyomo''' - "school" > '''onyo''' - learn + '''-mo''' - place; location
-* '''kuhasa''' - "kitchen" > '''kuha''' - cook + '''-sa''' - room; chamber
-* '''pyetampu''' - "egg-shaped" > '''pyeta''' - egg + '''-mpu''' - shape; form
-== Derivation ==
+= morphology =
-=== Verbalization ===
+== nouns ==
-Causative verbs (as well as achievement verbs) can be formed from other verbs by adding [[Kala/affixes#mya|-'''mya''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ma|'''muya''']] - ''"do, make, cause"'') or [[Kala/affixes#la|-'''la''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#a|'''ela''']] - ''"become; change into; turn into"''). This type of derivation is fairly common; however, verbs created in this way are syntactically defective and tend to appear only in serial verb constructions.
+=== pronouns ===
-* '''tinamya''' - "bend" < '''tina''' - be bent
+=== determiners and demonstratives ===
-* '''pitamya''' - "hollow out" < '''pita''' - be hollow; void
-* '''enomya''' - "annoy, bother" < '''eno''' - be angry
-* '''tsipuela''' - "slow down" < '''tsipue''' - be slow
-* '''kyolola''' - "speed up" < '''kyolo''' - be quick
-Intensive verbs can be formed from other verbs by adding [[Kala/affixes#mpa|-'''mpa''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#mpa|'''mpa''']] - ''"many; much; very"''), or more commonly [[Kala/affixes#hu|-'''hu''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ka|'''kyohu''']] - ''"be drastic; extreme; aggressive"'').
+== verbs ==
-* '''ketsahu''' - "dismiss, reject, repudiate" < '''ketsa''' - doubt
+=== passive ===
-* '''amyampa''' - "fall in love with" < '''amya''' - be fond of; like; prefer (of people)
-Adjective-like stative verbs which name an associated quality may be formed from nouns by [[Kala/affixes#n|-'''n''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#na|'''no''']] - ''"thing" (-ish, -ly, -ous)'').
+=== causative ===
-* '''timan''' - "be cruel, be bloody" < '''tima''' - blood
+=== inceptive ===
-* '''amyan''' - "be welcoming, be hospitable" < '''amya''' - be fond of
-=== Nominalization ===
+=== infinitive ===
-==== Agentive ====
+=== copula ===
-Nouns referring to a human subject of a verb (''usually in a habitual sense'') can be formed with the agentive suffix [[Kala/affixes#ko|-'''ko''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ka|'''ko''']] - ''"individual; person"''). This suffix changes to '''-tlo''' when a [[wp:Velar_stop|velar stop]] is present in the preceding syllable.
+=== stative verbs ===
-* '''kitlako''' - "craftsman" < '''kitla''' - create; invent; make-up
+= derivational morphology =
-* '''sutako''' - "inhabitant (of)" < '''suta''' - live; reside; dwell; inhabit; settle
-* '''yekatlo''' - "unmarried young adult" < '''yeka''' - be separate, be on one's own
-* '''makatlo''' - "musician" < '''maka''' - music; play ~; tune
-* '''tsaniko''' - "storyteller" < '''tsani''' - recite, tell (a story)
-==== Instrumental ====
+== nominalizers ==
-Instrument nouns and names for tools and other inanimates can be derived from verbs or from other nouns by adding the suffix [[Kala/affixes#nyo|-'''nyo''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ma|'''mayo''']] - ''"device; equipment; tool"'').
+== reduplication ==
-* '''hitanyo''' - "atlatl (spear-thrower)" < '''hita''' - throw; cast; expel
+== verbalizers ==
-* '''amonyo''' - "handle (for carrying)" < '''amo''' - transport; carry
-* '''kusunyo''' - "clasp, brooch, fibula" < '''kusu''' - squeeze
-* '''toponyo''' - "lock" < '''topo''' - door; gate
-==== Locative ====
+= syntax =
-Location nouns can be formed from both nouns and verbs by several suffixes. These indicate specific places where either something happens, or something resides there are a few affixes which modify both verbs and nouns.
+== word order ==
-[[Kala/affixes#mo|-'''mo''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ma|'''mo''']] - ''"location; place; site"''). This suffix is used to form the general idea of where something happens or resides.
+== case usage ==
-* '''tanamo''' - "battlefield; boxing ring; wrestling mat, etc." < '''tana''' - fight; combat
+== noun phrases ==
-* '''uelomo''' - "bicycle-place; bike path; bike rack, etc." < '''uelo''' - bicycle; bike
-* '''inamo''' - "eat-place; dining room; restaurant" [This can also mean food-place; pantry, etc.] < '''ina''' - food; eat
-* '''onyomo''' - "learn-place; school" < '''onyo''' - learn; study
-[[Kala/affixes#su|-'''su''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#sa|'''suku''']] - ''"market; shop; store"''). This suffix is used to specify a business where items are produced and/or sold.
+== numbers ==
-* '''tiyasu''' - "bread-shop; bakery" < '''tiya''' - bread
+== comparisons ==
-* '''inasu''' - "food-market; grocery store; restaurant" < '''ina''' - food; eat
-* '''uelosu''' - "bicycle-shop" < '''uelo''' - bicycle; bike
-[[Kala/affixes#kyo|-'''kyo''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ha|'''hakyo''']] - ''"college; school; university"''). This suffix is used to specify a location where students learn. This can also be used to indicate a school of thought, or ideology.
+== prepositions ==
-* '''tanakyo''' - "dojo; martial arts training academy; etc." < '''tana''' - fight; combat
+== tense usage ==
-* '''kuhakyo''' - "culinary-school; chef’s academy" < '''kuha''' - cook; prepare food
-* '''tsiyakyo''' - "liberalism" < '''tsiya''' - freedom; liberty
-* '''ya'akyo''' - "medical-school" < '''ya'a''' - medicine; drug; cure
-[[Kala/affixes#sa|-'''sa''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#sa|'''sala''']] - ''"chamber; room; section"''). This is more specific than
+== moods ==
-[[Kala/affixes#mo|-'''mo''']] and used primarily for spaces inside buildings.
-* '''kuhasa''' - "cook-room; kitchen" < '''kuha''' - cook; prepare food
+== aspect ==
-* '''mokusa''' - "sleep-room; bedroom" < '''moku''' - sleep; rest
-* '''inasa''' - "eat-room; dining room" < '''ina''' - food; eat
-* '''onyosa''' - "learn-room; classroom" < '''onyo''' - learn; study
-==== Diminutive ====
+== conditionals ==
-Diminutive nouns and endearment terms can be formed from verbs and other nouns by adding the suffix [[Kala/affixes#hi|-'''hi''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#a|'''ahi''']] - ''"few; small"''). This becomes '''-ki''' after a syllable that contains a [[wp:Glottal_fricative|glottal fricative]].
+== subordinate clauses ==
-* '''mukuhi''' - "blade" < '''muku''' - knife
+== negatives ==
-* '''umahi''' - "foal" < '''uma''' - horse; equine
-* '''mitahi''' - "puppy" < '''mita''' - dog; canine
-* '''ohuaki''' - "indulgence" < '''ohua''' - luxurious; extravagant
-==== Augmentative ====
+== questions ==
-Augmentative nouns can be formed from verbs and other nouns by adding the suffix [[Kala/affixes#ha|-'''ha''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ta|'''taha''']] - ''"big; large; grand"''). This becomes '''-ka''' after a syllable that contains a [[wp:Glottal_fricative|glottal fricative]].
-* '''kamaha''' - "city" < '''kama''' - village; town
-* '''ohaka''' - "dislocate one's jaw" < '''oha''' - yawn; open one's mouth
-* '''mosaha''' - "epic; novel" < '''mosa''' - book; letter; scroll
-* '''tiniha''' - "hurricane" < '''tini''' - spiral; whorl
-==== Honorific ====
-Honorific nouns can be formed from other nouns by prefixing [[Kala/affixes#o|'''o'''-]].
-* '''omasa''' - "stag" < '''masa''' - deer; cervine
-* '''okama''' - "capital" < '''kama''' - town; village
-= Syntax =
-== Simple sentences ==
-=== Reflexives and reciprocals ===
-Kala has reflexive and reciprocal [[Kala#Pronouns|pronoun]] forms, and as such declarative phrases are regular and predictable.
-* '''na'i sepaye'''
-: <small>1sg.REFL injure-PST</small>
-: ''I hurt myself.''
-* '''ha'i tlela'''
-: <small>3sg.REFL bathe</small>
-: ''She bathes herself.''
-* '''kanku ke onta nayo itsa'''
-: <small>3pl.RECP O parent 1sg.POSS love</small>
-: ''My parents love each other.''
-* '''na'anku amyapak'''
-: <small>1pl.EXCL.RECP like-ABIL-NEG</small>
-: ''We (but not you) are not able to like each other.''
-== Complex sentences ==
-=== Clause coordination ===
-Clause-level conjunctions such as '''ku''' "and", '''ua''' "or", or '''ehe''' "but, however" are placed clause-initially. Note that these conjunctions cannot be used to connect noun phrases.
-* '''tahi tohyo ku nahi pina'''
-: <small>boy brave CL.CONJ girl intelligent</small>
-: ''The boy is brave and the girl is intelligent.''
-* '''ima kihu saman ehe pakyotlai'''
-: <small>now weather sun-ADJ however storm-IMM</small>
-: ''Now the weather is sunny, but a storm will come soon.''
-=== Coordination of noun phrases ===
-Non-subject noun phrases are coordinated using the conjunction '''ma''' "and" (sometimes "with").
-* '''yomaye na ke tanka ma pato anya'''
-: <small>day-PST 1sg O eagle CONJ duck see</small>
-: ''I saw an eagle and a duck yesterday.''
-* '''kinti ke tsaka kamyo ma'a yosu sapotle ma siuem muya'''
-: <small>squirrel O house 3pl.POSS with moss soft-REL and leaf.PL make</small>
-: ''The squirrels make their nest comfortable with soft moss and leaves.''
-* '''ona ma ota kyosanku'''
-: <small>mother and father fornicate-RECP</small>
-: ''Mother and father have sex [with each other].''
-* '''ta ma'a na ke molihuelatli'''
-: <small>2sg with 1sg O forest-LOC-MOT-FUT</small>
-: ''You and I will go to the forest together.''
-Noun phrases can be presented as alternatives to each other with the conjunction '''ua''' "or; other". This conjunction can be used with both subjects and non-subjects. The conjunction '''ue''' "(exclusive) either X or Y" is used to delimit other nouns from the conjunction phrase.
-* '''ta ke nasi ua poma inamyo'''
-: <small>2sg O pear or apple eat-PERM</small>
-: ''You may eat an apple or a pear.''
-* '''tsola ue otso itsikua mataye'''
-: <small>fox either.X.or.Y wolf PROX-bird kill-PST</small>
-: ''It must have been a fox or a wolf that killed this bird.''
-Contrastive coordination of noun phrases ("but") is achieved with '''ehe''' "but; however" (or '''me''' more informally) if the noun phrases appear in subject position.
-* '''yomaye mita'u ehek mitana ke kutsu kapya'''
-: <small>day-PST dog-MASC but-NEG O meat receive</small>
-: ''The male dog but not the female dog received meat yesterday.''
-* '''na itlaka mek inaka unya'''
-: <small>1sg PROX-man but-NEG PROX-woman know</small>
-: ''I know this man, but not this woman.''
-=== Complement clauses ===
-=== Relative clauses ===
-Relative clauses, i.e. subordinated clauses acting as an attribute to a noun phrase, are marked with the relativizer '''-tle''' (or '''-le''' if the last syllable has '''tl'''). A pronoun referring to the relativized noun is retained within the relative clause:
-* '''na ka naka amyatle pesoue'''
-: <small>1sg O woman liked-REL meet-VOL</small>
-: ''I want to meet a girl who is friendly.''
-* '''naku nayo ke yakokua na tikuyetle inapua'''
-: <small>sister 1sg.POSS O strawberry-all 1sg pick-PST-REL eat-PFV</small>
-: ''My sister has eaten all the strawberries that I picked.''
-* '''kam tananitle ke teki tlalitli'''
-: <small>3pl fight-nice-REL O enemy defeat-FUT</small>
-: ''They who fight well will defeat the enemy.''
-=== Adverbial clauses ===

User:Masako/pataka: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 07:37, 24 January 2022

introduction

phonology

consonants

free variation

Sound Changes

vowels

diphthongs

phonotactics

gemination

syllables

syllable chart

collating order

stress

orthography

morphology

nouns

pronouns

determiners and demonstratives

verbs

passive

causative

inceptive

infinitive

copula

stative verbs

derivational morphology

nominalizers

reduplication

verbalizers

syntax

word order

case usage

noun phrases

numbers

comparisons

prepositions

tense usage

moods

aspect

conditionals

subordinate clauses

negatives

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