Latest revision as of 07:37, 24 January 2022

introduction

phonology

consonants

Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes.

Consonants
	Labial	Alveolar		Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	m (m)	n (n)		ɲ (ny)
Plosive	p~b (p)	t~d (t)			k~g (k)	ʔ ( ' )
Affricate		ts~t͡ʃ (ts)	t͡ɬ~tl (tl)
Continuant		s~ʃ (s)	l~ɾ (l)			h~ɦ (h)
Semivowel				j (y)	w (u)

The glottal stop is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.

Prenasalized: /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
Labialized:/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
Palatalized: /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/

free variation

Because of its small phoneme inventory, Kala allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.

Sound Changes

The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/. The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, sama (sun; star; solar) is /ˈʃaːma/ where sitsa (heat; hot) is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and tsisi (embroider; embroidery) is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.

vowels

Vowels
	Front	Back
Close	i~ɪ (i)	u~ʊ (u)
Mid	e~ɛ (e)	o~o: (o)
Open	a~ɑ (a)

Kala has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. tsunka [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').

diphthongs

Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] ai and [aʊ̯] ao, but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] ua, [we] ue, [ja] ya, [je] ye, and [jo] yo. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] uai and [jaʊ̯] yao are very rare but should be noted as possible.

phonotactics

The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) (N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i) where (N) indicates nasalization, and u and y indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.

There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by Kala phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as tata for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).

When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by –u, which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be tsuala’u meaning “to become prosperous”, from tsuala “prosper; be prosperous” and the suffix –la meaning “become; change into”, used to indicate the mutative.

gemination

Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. naka (woman) can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas nakkan (chieftess) can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.

syllables

Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings –m (indicating general plural, deriving from ma, meaning “and, also”), -n (indicating accusative case, deriving from no, meaning “thing, object”), and –k (indicating negative mood, deriving from nke, meaning “no, not”).

syllable chart

the 136 basic Kala syllables
	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo	ai	ao	uai	yao
p	(m)pa	(m)pe	(m)pi	(m)po	(m)pu	pua	pue	pya	pye	pyo	pai	pao	puai	pyao
t	(n)ta	(n)te	(n)ti	(n)to							tai	tao
k	(n)ka	(n)ke	(n)ki	(n)ko	(n)ku	kua	kue	kya	kye	kyo	kai	kao	kuai	kyao
m	ma	me	mi	mo	mu	mua	mue	mya	mye	myo	mai	mao	muai	myao
n	na	ne	ni	no	nu	nua	nue	nya	nye	nyo	nai	nao	nuai	nyao
s	sa	se	si	so	su	sua	sue				sai	sao	suai
h	ha	he	hi	ho	hu	hua	hue	hya	hye	hyo	hai	hao	huai	hyao
ts	tsa	tse	tsi	tso	tsu	tsua	tsue				tsai	tsao	tsuai
tl	tla	tle	tli	tlo							tlai	tlao
l	la	le	li	lo							lai	lao
-	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo	ai	ao	uai	yao

Syllables such as nsa, ntla, or ntsa can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The A-O columns are called mpalo and are the most common, the U-YO are called puhyo, the AI-YAO/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as paihyao.

collating order

The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the Naua script.

Consonants	p	t	k	m	n	s	h	ts	tl	l
Vowels	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo

Based on this order, ma would come before ha, etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. mpa comes after pyo but before ta. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the lexicon. This order can be vocalized as “pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”, this aides in memorization and organization.

stress

Stress generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is de facto initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-A short primer for Kala grammar. The full grammar can be found here:
+= introduction =
-= Han Moya=
+= phonology =
-'''Han Moya''' is an adaptation of [[wp:Hangul|Hangul]] for writing '''Kala'''. It is written horizontally, in lines running from left to right. It can also be written vertically in columns.
+== consonants ==
+* Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
-== Consonants ==
+{|class=wikitable style="text-align: center; width:40%;"
+|+Consonants
+!
+!Labial
+!colspan=2|Alveolar
+!Palatal
+!Velar
+!Glottal
+|-
+! Nasal
+| m ('''m''')
+|colspan=2|n ('''n''')
+| ɲ ('''ny''')
+|
+|
+|-
+! Plosive
+| p~b ('''p''')
+|colspan=2|t~d ('''t''')
+|
+| k~g ('''k''')
+| ʔ (''' ' ''')
+|-
+! Affricate
+|
+| ts~t͡ʃ ('''ts''') || t͡ɬ~tl ('''tl''')
+|
+|
+|
+|-
+! Continuant
+|
+| s~ʃ ('''s''') || l~ɾ ('''l''')
+|
+|
+| h~ɦ ('''h''')
+|-
+! Semivowel
+|
+|colspan=2|
+| j ('''y''')
+| w ('''u''')
+|
+|}
-* <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㄱㄲㄴㄷㄸㄹㅁㅂㅃㅅㅆㅇㅈㅉㅊㅋㅌㅍㅎ</b></big></big></font>
+The [[wp:Glottal_stop|glottal stop]] is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.
-: '''k nk n t nt l m p mp s ns a ts nts ts` k` tl p` h'''
-: /k~g ᵑk~ⁿg n t~d ⁿt~ⁿd l~ɾ m p~b ᵐp~ᵐb s~ʃ ⁿs~ⁿʃ - ts~t͡ʃ ⁿts~ⁿt͡ʃ tsʰ~t͡ʃʰ kʰ t͡ɬ~tl pʰ h~ɦ/
-The adaptations of doubled consonants are used word initially to indicate [[wp:Prenasalized_consonant|prenasalization]]. Medial occurrences of nasalized syllables are written across syllables.
+* '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
+* '''Labialized''':/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
+* '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/
-== Vowels ==
+=== free variation ===
+Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of [[wp:Free_variation|allophonic variation]]. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.
-* <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㅏ ᅶ ㅐ ㅑ ᅸ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅛ ㅜ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ</b></big></big></font>
+=== Sound Changes ===
-: '''a ao ai ya yao e ye o ao yo ua uai ue u i'''
+The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/.  The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, '''sama''' (''sun; star; solar'') is /ˈʃaːma/ where '''sitsa''' (''heat; hot'') is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and '''tsisi''' (''embroider; embroidery'') is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.
-: /a~a: aʊ̯ aɪ̯ ja~ʲa: jaʊ̯~ʲaʊ̯ e~ɛ je~ʲɛ o~o: jo~ʲo: wa~ʷa: waɪ̯~ʷaɪ̯ we~ʷe: u~u: i~ɪ/
-* <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㅘ</b></big></big></font> This is pronounced /we/ in Korean because of the order of the vowels; however, because [[wp:List_of_Hangul_jamo|obsolete jamo]] are difficult to type and look junky as images, in Kala, this is used for /aʊ̯/ when typing. It is rarely seen due to the diphthong itself being uncommon.
+== vowels ==
+{| class="wikitable"
+|+Vowels
+!
+!'''Front'''
+!'''Back'''
+|-align=center
+!'''Close'''
+|{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~ʊ}} '''(u)'''
+|-align=center
+!'''Mid'''
+|{{IPA|e~ɛ}} '''(e)''' || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)'''
+|-align=center
+!'''Open'''
+|colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~ɑ}} '''(a)'''
+|}
+'''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
-= Word order =
+=== diphthongs ===
+Phonetically, '''Kala''' has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] '''ai''' and [aʊ̯] '''ao''', but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] '''ua''', [we] '''ue''', [ja] '''ya''', [je] '''ye''', and [jo] '''yo'''. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] '''uai''' and [jaʊ̯] '''yao''' are very rare but should be noted as possible.
-<small>SUBJECT - OBJECT - VERB</small>
+== phonotactics ==
+The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) '''(N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i)''' where '''(N)''' indicates nasalization, and '''u''' and '''y''' indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.
-* <b>naka ke mita itsa</b>
+There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as '''tata''' for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).
-: <small>woman O dog love</small>
-: <i>The woman loves the dog.</i>
-Kala lacks morphological adjectives and instead uses attributive verbs.
+When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by '''–u''', which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be '''tsuala’u''' meaning ''“to become prosperous”'', from '''tsuala''' ''“prosper; be prosperous”'' and the suffix '''–la''' meaning ''“become; change into”'', used to indicate the mutative.
-* <b>ke tsaka taha</b>
+=== gemination ===
-: <small>O house be.big</small>
+Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. '''naka''' (''woman'') can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas '''nakkan''' (''chieftess'') can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.
-: <i>The big house / The house is big</i>
-Kala lacks morphological adverbs, verbs modified with the adverbial ending '''-n''' tend to precede the verb phrase they modify.
+=== syllables ===
+Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings '''–m''' (indicating general plural, deriving from '''ma''', meaning ''“and, also”''), '''-n''' (indicating accusative case, deriving from '''no''', meaning ''“thing, object”''), and '''–k''' (indicating negative mood, deriving from '''nke''', meaning ''“no, not”'').
-* <b>tsumun nam yokone</b>
+=== syllable chart ===
-: <small>cautious-ADV 1pl swim-SUG</small>
+{| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;"
-: <i>We should swim cautiously.</i>
+|+the 136 basic Kala syllables
+|-
-Kala lacks morphological prepositions and instead uses locational and relational verbs.
+!
+! a
-* <b>mita ke yempa tahe</b>
+! e
-: <small>dog O table be.under</small>
+! i
-: <i>The dog is under the table.</i>
+! o
+! u
-= Nouns =
+! ua
+! ue
-Nouns are marked for number; plural and collective:
+! ya
+! ye
-* <b>mita</b> - <small>dog</small> - <i>a dog</i>
+! yo
-** <b>mitam</b> - <small>dog-PL</small> - <i>dogs</i>
+! ai
-** <b>tlimita</b> - <small>COL-dog</small> - <i>a dog pack / a pack of dogs</i>
+! ao
-** <b>tlimitam</b> - <small>COL-dog-PL</small> - <i>dog packs / packs of dogs</i>
+! uai
+! yao
-When the final syllable of a word contains an <b>m</b>, <b>mp</b>, and sometimes a <b>p</b> the plural marking changes to <b>-lo</b>.
+|-
+! p
-* <b>yama</b> - <small>mountain</small> - <i>a mountain</i>
+| align="center"|''(m)pa''
-** <b>yamalo</b> - <small>mountain-PL</small> - <i>mountains</i>
+| align="center"|''(m)pe''
-** <b>tliyama</b> - <small>COL-mountain</small> - <i>a mountain range / range of mountains</i>
+| align="center"|''(m)pi''
-** <b>tliyamalo</b> - <small>COL-mountain-PL</small> - <i>mountain ranges / ranges of mountains</i>
+| align="center"|''(m)po''
+| align="center"|''(m)pu''
-Gender is not normally marked but can be with the endings <b>-na</b> and <b>-ta</b> to mark the feminine and masculine, respectively.
+| align="center"|''pua''
+| align="center"|''pue''
-* <b>uma</b> - <small>horse</small> - <i>a horse</i>
+| align="center"|''pya''
-** <b>umana</b> - <small>horse-FEM</small> - <i>mare</i>
+| align="center"|''pye''
-** <b>umata</b> - <small>horse-MASC</small> - <i>stallion</i>
+| align="center"|''pyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''pai''</font>
-== Determiners & Demostratives ==
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''pao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''puai''</font>
-The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show [[Wikipedia:Deixis|deixis]]. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|proximal]] or first person (objects near to the speaker), [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|medial]] or second person (objects near to the addressee), and [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|distal]] or third person (objects far from both).
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''pyao''</font>
+|-
-{{col-begin}}
+! t
-{{col-break}}
+| align="center"|''(n)ta''
-* '''itla''' ('''i-''') - this (near me)
+| align="center"|''(n)te''
-* '''uatla''' ('''ua-''') - that (near you)
+| align="center"|''(n)ti''
-* '''yetla''' ('''ye-''') - that (over there)
+| align="center"|''(n)to''
+| align="center"|'' ''
-Examples:
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
-* '''imitami''' - <small>PROX-dog-few</small> - ''These few dogs (near me)''
+| align="center"|'' ''
-* '''yemitampa''' - <small>DIST-dog-many</small> - ''Those many dogs (over there)''
+| align="center"|'' ''
-* '''uamitali''' - <small>MED-dog-each</small> - ''Each dog (each of those dogs) (near you)''
+| align="center"|'' ''
-{{col-break}}
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tai''</font>
-Quantifier suffixes follow the noun that modify.
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tao''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
-* '''kua''' ('''-kua''') - all; every; whole
+| align="center"|'' ''
-* '''oli''' ('''-li''') - each; every
+|-
-* '''ula''' ('''-la''') - whatever; any; some
+! k
-* '''mi''' ('''-mi''') - few; little
+| align="center"|''(n)ka''
-* '''nke''' ('''-k''') - none
+| align="center"|''(n)ke''
-* '''mpa''' ('''-mpa''') - many; much; a lot
+| align="center"|''(n)ki''
-* '''maha''' - more; plus
+| align="center"|''(n)ko''
-* '''ohi''' - less; fewer
+| align="center"|''(n)ku''
-{{col-end}}
+| align="center"|''kua''
+| align="center"|''kue''
-== Pronouns ==
+| align="center"|''kya''
-{{col-begin}}
+| align="center"|''kye''
-{{col-break}}
+| align="center"|''kyo''
-''Personal pronouns'':
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kao''</font>
-* '''na''' - 1st person
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kuai''</font>
-* '''ta''' - 2nd person
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kyao''</font>
-* '''ha''' - 3rd person
+|-
-* '''tla''' - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for [[wp:Animacy|inanimate]] nouns)
+! m
-:
+| align="center"|''ma''
-* '''na'am''' - 1st person plural [[wp:Clusivity|exclusive]] (we but not you)
+| align="center"|''me''
-* '''kam''' - 3rd person plural
+| align="center"|''mi''
-{{col-break}}
+| align="center"|''mo''
-''Modifiers'':
+| align="center"|''mu''
+| align="center"|''mua''
-* '''-m''' - plural
+| align="center"|''mue''
-* '''-nku''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_pronoun|reciprocal]] (inherently plural)
+| align="center"|''mya''
-* '''e-''' - patient
+| align="center"|''mye''
-* '''-i''' - reflexive
+| align="center"|''myo''
-* '''-yo''' - possessive
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''mai''</font>
-{{col-break}}
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''mao''</font>
-''Other pronouns include'':
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''muai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''myao''</font>
-* '''tlokua''' - everyone, everybody
+|-
-* '''kola''' - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
+! n
-* '''tlok''' - no one, nobody
+| align="center"|''na''
-* '''nokua''' - everything
+| align="center"|''ne''
-* '''nola''' - something; whatever, anything
+| align="center"|''ni''
-* '''nok''' - nothing
+| align="center"|''no''
-{{col-end}}
+| align="center"|''nu''
+| align="center"|''nua''
-= Verbs =
+| align="center"|''nue''
+| align="center"|''nya''
-Verbs are marked for tense, aspect, and mood.
+| align="center"|''nye''
+| align="center"|''nyo''
-{{col-begin}}
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nai''</font>
-{{col-break}}
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nao''</font>
-'''''Tense''''':
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nuai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nyao''</font>
-Simple past, present, and future.
+|-
+! s
-* <b>naka ke mita anyaye</b>
+| align="center"|''sa''
-: <small>woman O dog see-[[wp:Past_tense|PST]]</small>
+| align="center"|''se''
-: <i>The woman saw the dog.</i>
+| align="center"|''si''
+| align="center"|''so''
-* <b>mita ke tahi yatsi</b>
+| align="center"|''su''
-: <small>dog O boy bite</small>
+| align="center"|''sua''
-: <i>The dog bites the boy.</i>
+| align="center"|''sue''
+| align="center"|'' ''
-* <b>naka ke tahi tlepatli</b>
+| align="center"|'' ''
-: <small>woman O boy teach-[[wp:Future_tense|FUT]]</small>
+| align="center"|'' ''
-: <i>The woman will teach the boy.</i>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''sai''</font>
-{{col-break}}
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''sao''</font>
-'''''Aspect''''':
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''suai''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
-Continuous, Perfective, Inchoative, and Frequentative.
+|-
+! h
-* <b>na ke niye pukunko</b>
+| align="center"|''ha''
-: <small>1s O undergarment wear-[[wp:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|CONT]]</small>
+| align="center"|''he''
-: <i>I am wearing underclothes.</i>
+| align="center"|''hi''
+| align="center"|''ho''
-* <b>kam inapua</b>
+| align="center"|''hu''
-: <small>3pl eat-[[wp:Perfective_aspect|PFV]]</small>
+| align="center"|''hua''
-: <i>They have eaten.</i>
+| align="center"|''hue''
+| align="center"|''hya''
-* <b>nahi yotimu</b>
+| align="center"|''hye''
-: <small>girl play-[[wp:Inchoative_aspect|INCH]]</small>
+| align="center"|''hyo''
-: <i>The girl begins to play.</i>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''hai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''hao''</font>
-* <b>tlaka ke apua tlatonua</b>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''huai''</font>
-: <small>man O song recite-[[wp:Frequentative|FREQ]]</small>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''hyao''</font>
-: <i>The man recites the song repetitively.</i>
+|-
-{{col-break}}
+! ts
-'''''Mood''''':
+| align="center"|''tsa''
+| align="center"|''tse''
-Abilitative, Attemptative, Hortative, Precative, Dubitative, Propositive,<br>Necessitative, Negative, Preparative, Volitive, Assumptive, and Permissive.
+| align="center"|''tsi''
+| align="center"|''tso''
-* <b>na mokuyepak</b>
+| align="center"|''tsu''
-: <small>1s sleep-PST-[[wp:Natchez_language#Preverbs|ABIL]]-NEG</small>
+| align="center"|''tsua''
-: <i>I was unable to sleep.</i>
+| align="center"|''tsue''
+| align="center"|'' ''
-* <b>neko ke panya matapya</b>
+| align="center"|'' ''
-: <small>cat O mouse kill-ATT</small>
+| align="center"|'' ''
-: <i>The cat is trying to kill the mouse.</i>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsao''</font>
-* <b>yalakya</b>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsuai''</font>
-: <small>walk-[[wp:Hortative|HORT]]</small>
+| align="center"|'' ''
-: <i>Let's go!</i>
-* <b>ke asi yetate</b>
-: <small>O salt give-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Precative|PREC]]</small>
-: <i>Will you please pass me the salt?</i>
-* <b>ha tsakahueke</b>
-: <small>3s home-LOC-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Dubitative|DUB]]</small>
-: <i>I guess he is at home.</i> lit: ''He is at home, supposedly.''
-{{col-break}}
-* <b>mita inahe</b>
-: <small>dog eat-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Necessitative|NEC]]</small>
-: <i>The dog needs to eat.</i>
-* <b>naku nayo hinak</b>
-: <small>sister 1s-GEN be.here-[[wp:Affirmative_and_negative|NEG]]</small>
-: <i>My sister is not here.</i>
-* <b>tahi mokusue</b>
-: <small>boy sleep-PREP</small>
-: <i>The boy is ready to sleep.</i>
-* <b>otsokai ka'e moli yalaue</b>
-: <small>wolf-red toward forest go-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Volitive|VOL]]</small>
-: <i>Redwolf wants/intends to go to the forest.</i>
-* <b>naka hinaho</b>
-: <small>woamn be.here-[[wp:Assumptive_mood|ASS]]</small>
-: <i>The woman must be here. (I assume)</i> (also used as "assertive")
-* <b>ta ke hina simamyok</b>
-: <small>2s O here sit-[[wp:Irrealis_mood#Permissive|PERM]]-NEG</small>
-: <i>You are not allowed to sit here.</i>
-{{col-end}}
-The modals and tense affixes can be added in different order to a verb to create a new meaning; their placement is not always fixed. The negative, adverbial, and plural endings are always final, while other affixes can be varied, but in general they should be ordered:
-Example:
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
-|+
 |-
-! Verb Stem
+! tl
-! Size/Importance
+| align="center"|''tla''
-! Mood
+| align="center"|''tle''
-! Aspect
+| align="center"|''tli''
-! Tense
+| align="center"|''tlo''
-! Negative
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlao''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
 |-
-| '''empa''' || '''-hi''' || '''-pa'''  || '''-nko''' || '''-ye''' || '''-k'''
+! l
+| align="center"|''la''
+| align="center"|''le''
+| align="center"|''li''
+| align="center"|''lo''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''lai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''lao''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
 |-
-| run || DIM || ABIL || PROG  || PST || NEG
+! -
+| align="center"|''a''
+| align="center"|''e''
+| align="center"|''i''
+| align="center"|''o''
+| align="center"|''u''
+| align="center"|''ua''
+| align="center"|''ue''
+| align="center"|''ya''
+| align="center"|''ye''
+| align="center"|''yo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''ai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''ao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''uai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''yao''</font>
 |}
-* '''na empahipankoyek'''
+<small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The '''A-O''' columns are called '''''mpalo''''' and are the most common, the '''U-YO''' are called '''''puhyo''''', the '''AI-YAO'''/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as '''''paihyao'''''.</small>
-: <small>1SG run-DIM-able-PROG-PST-NEG</small>
-: ''I was not able to keep jogging.''
-= Adjectives =
+=== collating order ===
+The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the [[Kala/writing#Naua|'''Naua''']] script.
-Kala does not have morphologically distinct adjectives. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an attributive and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result.
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
+! Consonants
+| '''p'''
+| '''t'''
+| '''k'''
+| '''m'''
+| '''n'''
+| '''s'''
+| '''h'''
+| '''ts'''
+| '''tl'''
+| '''l'''
+|-align=center
+! Vowels
+| '''a'''
+| '''e'''
+| '''i'''
+| '''o'''
+| '''u'''
+| '''ua'''
+| '''ue'''
+| '''ya'''
+| '''ye'''
+| '''yo'''
+|-align=center
+|}
-* '''tsaka ketla'''
+Based on this order, '''ma''' would come before '''ha''', etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. '''mpa''' comes after '''pyo''' but before '''ta'''. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]]. This order can be vocalized as ''“pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”'', this aides in memorization and organization.
-: <small>house be.red</small>
-: ''The house is red.''
-The comparative is made by using the augmentative or diminutive ending on the verb.
+== stress ==
+[[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;
-* '''tsaka hayo ke nayo ketlaha'''
+* '''<u>ma</u>sa''' - /ˈmaːsa/ → '''ma<u>sa</u>ko''' - /maːˈsako/
-: <small>house 3s.GEN O 1s.GEN be.red-AUG</small>
+* '''tli<u>ya</u>ma''' - /tɬiːˈjama/ → '''tliya<u>ma</u>lo''' - /tɬiːjaˈmalo/
-: ''His house is more red than mine.''
+* '''kam''' - /kaːm/ → '''<u>ka</u>myo''' - /ˈkaːmʲo/
+* '''empa<u>ha</u>pak''' - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → '''empaha<u>pa</u>yek''' - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/
-Equivalence is indicated with either '''kue''' (as, like), or '''mya''' (as...as).
+= orthography =
-* '''tsaka hayo kue nayo ketla'''
+= morphology =
-: <small>house 3s.GEN as 1s.GEN be.red</small>
-: ''His house is red like mine.''
-* '''tsaka hayo mya nayo ketla'''
+== nouns ==
-: <small>house 3s.GEN as.X.as 1s.GEN be.red</small>
-: ''His house is as red as mine.''
-Like verbs, adjectives can be used as nouns. For example, '''aya''' means "beautiful", but '''ayako''' means "a beautiful one" or "a beauty." An adjective can be made into an abstract noun by adding -'''n''' (''-ity, -ness, -ship, -hood''). In this way '''aya''' becomes '''ayan''', meaning "beauty". This can also be used with nouns: '''ona''' (mother) becomes '''onan''' (motherhood).
+=== pronouns ===
-= Adverbs =
+=== determiners and demonstratives ===
-Kala does not have morphologically distinct adverbs. Adverbs can be formed from all adjectives (or stative verbs) by adding '''-n''' to the root. Since this rule is regular, it is not generally indicated in grammatical examples or in the lexicon.
+== verbs ==
-* '''aya''' - beautiful >> '''ayan''' - beautifully
+=== passive ===
-* '''tama''' - good >> '''taman''' - well
-* '''poyo''' - rich >> '''poyon''' - richly
-* '''tsipue''' - slow >> '''tsipuen''' - slowly (<small>this can also be marked on the main verb with '''-tsue'''</small>)
-* '''tlaki''' - fluent >> '''tlakin''' - fluently
-= Prepositions =
+=== causative ===
-Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. There is one general locative (-'''hue''') which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”. Here are some common verbs used as [[wp:Preposition_and_postposition|adpositions]]:
+=== inceptive ===
-{{col-begin}}
-{{col-break}}
-* '''pahe''' - against; touching
-* '''pa'e''' - apart from; other than; except for
-* '''paye''' - beyond; exceeding; farther than
-* '''pue''' - after; back; behind; rear
-* '''tahe''' - below; beneath; under
-* '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at [moving toward]
-* '''kaye''' - around; encircling; surrounding
-* '''mahe''' - around; approximate; close to
-* '''ma'a''' - with [accompanied by / furnished with]
-* '''ma'e''' - before; in front
-* '''maye''' - between; among
-{{col-break}}
-* '''nahe ''' - in [located inside of]; internal
-* '''nyaue''' - outside of; exterior to
-* '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
-* '''saye''' - along; following [a line]
-* '''hue / -hue''' - at [in the same location as] [LOC]
-* '''tsa'e''' - across; through
-* '''ua'e''' - above; over / on
-* '''uaye''' - from [moving out of or away from]
-* '''ya'e''' - near; close to
-* '''yomo''' - to the right of
-* '''yoso''' - to the left of
-{{col-end}}
-* '''na ke ito yamahue anyapa'''
+=== infinitive ===
-: <small>1sg O tree hill-LOC see-ABIL</small>
-: ''I can see a tree on the hill.''
-* '''ntahim nyaue tsaka yoti'''
+=== copula ===
-: <small>child-PL outside.of house play</small>
-: ''The children are playing outside of the house.''
-= Conjunctions =
+=== stative verbs ===
-Words and phrases may be coordinated in Kala with the following words:
+= derivational morphology =
-{{col-begin}}
-{{col-break}}
-* '''pa''' - although; even though; even if
-* '''ku''' - and; also [clause level]
-* '''ma''' - and; also; too; as well
-* '''ehe''' / ('''me''') - but; yet; however
-* '''impo''' - therefore; as a result; so; consequently; thus
-* '''ua''' - or; other; else
-* '''ue''' - either X or Y
-* '''uenke''' / ('''uek''') - neither X nor Y
-* '''yatli''' - if X then Y
-* '''yema''' - both X and Y
-* '''yetli''' - if it were not; if not X then Y >> X '''yatli''' Y
-{{col-break}}
-* '''ha'ena itsa ehe hinak'''
-: <small>3s-P.1s love but be.here-NEG</small>
-: ''She loves me but is not here.''
-* '''aye na tala ku matsu'''
+== nominalizers ==
-: <small>PST 1s come CONJ conquer</small>
-: ''I came, I conquered.''
-{{col-end}}
-= Questions =
+== reduplication ==
-There are two types of questions: [[Wikipedia:Yes–no_question|Polar]], those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers.
+== verbalizers ==
-== polar questions ==
+= syntax =
-Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.
+== word order ==
-{{col-begin}}
+== case usage ==
-{{col-break}}
-* '''mita ina'''
-: <small>dog eat</small>
-: ''The dog eats.''
-* '''nta'i moku'''
+== noun phrases ==
-: <small>baby sleep</small>
-: ''The baby is sleeping. / The baby sleeps.''
-* '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye'''
+== numbers ==
-: <small>2SG O elephant see-PST</small>
-: ''You saw the elephant.''
-* '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye'''
+== comparisons ==
-: <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST</small>
-: ''The doctor gave you the medicine.''
-{{col-break}}
-* '''mita ina ka'''
-: <small>dog eat Q</small>
-: ''Does the dog eat?''
-* '''nta'i moku ka'''
+== prepositions ==
-: <small>baby sleep Q</small>
-: ''Is the baby sleeping?''
-* '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye ka'''
+== tense usage ==
-: <small>2SG O elephant see-PST Q</small>
-: ''Did you see the elephant?''
-* '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye ka'''
+== moods ==
-: <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST Q</small>
-: ''Did the doctor give you the medicine?''
-{{col-end}}
-== content questions ==
-Questions that give a list of possible answers are formed like polar questions, with the conjunction '''ue''' ‘or’ introducing each alternative (which must appear in the form of a noun phrase).
-* '''ta ke nkapa ue maya inuue ka'''
-: <small>2SG O beer or.EXCL water drink-VOL Q</small>
-: ''Do you want to drink beer or water?''
-* '''uala ta ke sinka mataye ue empa ma koma ka'''
-: <small>truly 2sg O lion kill-PST or.EXCL flee CONJ hide Q</small>
-: ''Did you really kill the lion, or did you run away and hide?''
-Open content questions are most easily formed with the correlatives, such as '''ko''' ‘person’, '''mo''' ‘place’, '''to''' ‘manner’, etc. These correlatives always appear clause-initially:
-* '''ko ta ka'''
-: <small>person 2sg Q</small>
-: ''Who are you?''
-* '''itla ka'''
-: <small>this Q</small>
-: ''What is this?''
-* '''to kihu ka'''
-: <small>manner weather Q</small>
-: ''What's the weather like?''
-The other type contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
-|+ kanyo
-|-
-!
-! Kala
-! gloss
-! English
-|-
-! object
-| '''ke mita ina ka''' || <small>O dog eat Q</small> || ''What does the dog eat?''
-|-
-! person
-| '''ko ina ka''' || <small>person eat Q</small> || ''Who eats?''
-|-
-! possession
-| '''koyo mita ina ka''' || <small>person-POSS dog eat Q</small> || ''Whose dog eats?''
-|-
-! manner
-| '''to mita ina ka''' || <small>manner dog eat Q</small> || ''How does the dog eat?''
-|-
-! place
-| '''mo mita ina ka''' || <small>place dog eat Q</small> || ''Where does the dog eat?''
-|-
-! reason
-| '''nye mita ina ka''' || <small>reason dog eat Q</small> || ''Why does the dog eat?''
-|-
-! time
-| '''ama mita ina ka''' || <small>time dog eat Q</small> || ''When does the dog eat?''
-|-
-! amount
-| '''uku mita ina ka''' || <small>amount dog eat Q</small> || ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
-|-
-! which
-| '''ula mita ina ka''' || <small>any dog eat Q</small> || ''Which dog eats?''
-|}
-= Clauses =
+== aspect ==
-Relative clauses (or adjective clauses) function like adjectives. Relative clauses follow the noun or noun phrase that they modify:
+== conditionals ==
-* '''naka ke na itsatle te ameyo'''
+== subordinate clauses ==
-: <small>woman O 1s love-REL from America</small>
-: ''The woman (that) I love comes from America.''
-* '''mayo ke na kitlayetle muyak'''
+== negatives ==
-: <small>tool O 1s create-PST-REL do-NEG</small>
-: ''The tool (that) I built doesn't function.''
-* '''na ke ta yani unyak''' / '''na ke yani tayo unyak'''
+== questions ==
-: <small>1s O 2s mean know-NEG / 1s O meaning 2s.GEN know-NEG</small>
-: ''I don't understand what you mean.''

User:Masako/pataka: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 07:37, 24 January 2022

introduction

phonology

consonants

free variation

Sound Changes

vowels

diphthongs

phonotactics

gemination

syllables

syllable chart

collating order

stress

orthography

morphology

nouns

pronouns

determiners and demonstratives

verbs

passive

causative

inceptive

infinitive

copula

stative verbs

derivational morphology

nominalizers

reduplication

verbalizers

syntax

word order

case usage

noun phrases

numbers

comparisons

prepositions

tense usage

moods

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conditionals

subordinate clauses

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