Latest revision as of 07:37, 24 January 2022

introduction

phonology

consonants

Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes.

Consonants
	Labial	Alveolar		Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	m (m)	n (n)		ɲ (ny)
Plosive	p~b (p)	t~d (t)			k~g (k)	ʔ ( ' )
Affricate		ts~t͡ʃ (ts)	t͡ɬ~tl (tl)
Continuant		s~ʃ (s)	l~ɾ (l)			h~ɦ (h)
Semivowel				j (y)	w (u)

The glottal stop is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.

Prenasalized: /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
Labialized:/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
Palatalized: /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/

free variation

Because of its small phoneme inventory, Kala allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.

Sound Changes

The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/. The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, sama (sun; star; solar) is /ˈʃaːma/ where sitsa (heat; hot) is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and tsisi (embroider; embroidery) is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.

vowels

Vowels
	Front	Back
Close	i~ɪ (i)	u~ʊ (u)
Mid	e~ɛ (e)	o~o: (o)
Open	a~ɑ (a)

Kala has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. tsunka [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').

diphthongs

Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] ai and [aʊ̯] ao, but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] ua, [we] ue, [ja] ya, [je] ye, and [jo] yo. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] uai and [jaʊ̯] yao are very rare but should be noted as possible.

phonotactics

The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) (N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i) where (N) indicates nasalization, and u and y indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.

There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by Kala phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as tata for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).

When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by –u, which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be tsuala’u meaning “to become prosperous”, from tsuala “prosper; be prosperous” and the suffix –la meaning “become; change into”, used to indicate the mutative.

gemination

Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. naka (woman) can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas nakkan (chieftess) can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.

syllables

Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings –m (indicating general plural, deriving from ma, meaning “and, also”), -n (indicating accusative case, deriving from no, meaning “thing, object”), and –k (indicating negative mood, deriving from nke, meaning “no, not”).

syllable chart

the 136 basic Kala syllables
	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo	ai	ao	uai	yao
p	(m)pa	(m)pe	(m)pi	(m)po	(m)pu	pua	pue	pya	pye	pyo	pai	pao	puai	pyao
t	(n)ta	(n)te	(n)ti	(n)to							tai	tao
k	(n)ka	(n)ke	(n)ki	(n)ko	(n)ku	kua	kue	kya	kye	kyo	kai	kao	kuai	kyao
m	ma	me	mi	mo	mu	mua	mue	mya	mye	myo	mai	mao	muai	myao
n	na	ne	ni	no	nu	nua	nue	nya	nye	nyo	nai	nao	nuai	nyao
s	sa	se	si	so	su	sua	sue				sai	sao	suai
h	ha	he	hi	ho	hu	hua	hue	hya	hye	hyo	hai	hao	huai	hyao
ts	tsa	tse	tsi	tso	tsu	tsua	tsue				tsai	tsao	tsuai
tl	tla	tle	tli	tlo							tlai	tlao
l	la	le	li	lo							lai	lao
-	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo	ai	ao	uai	yao

Syllables such as nsa, ntla, or ntsa can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The A-O columns are called mpalo and are the most common, the U-YO are called puhyo, the AI-YAO/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as paihyao.

collating order

The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the Naua script.

Consonants	p	t	k	m	n	s	h	ts	tl	l
Vowels	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo

Based on this order, ma would come before ha, etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. mpa comes after pyo but before ta. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the lexicon. This order can be vocalized as “pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”, this aides in memorization and organization.

stress

Stress generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is de facto initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-== Content words ==
+= introduction =
-=== adpositionals ===
+= phonology =
-Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. There is one general locative (-'''hue''') which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”. Here are some common verbs used as [[wp:Preposition_and_postposition|adpositions]]:
-{{Col-begin}}
-{{Col-2}}
-* '''pahe''' - against; touching
-* '''pa'e''' - apart from; other than; except for
-* '''paye''' - beyond; exceeding; farther than
-* '''pue''' - after; back; behind; rear
-* '''tahe''' - below; beneath; under
-* '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at [moving toward]
-* '''kaye''' - around; encircling; surrounding
-* '''mahe''' - around; approximate; close to
-* '''ma'a''' - with [accompanied by / furnished with]
-* '''ma'e''' - before; in front
-* '''maye''' - between; among
-{{Col-2}}
-* '''nahe ''' - in [located inside of]; internal
-* '''nyaue''' - outside of; exterior to
-* '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
-* '''saye''' - along; following [a line]
-* '''hue / -hue''' - at [in the same location as] [LOC]
-* '''tsa'e''' - across; through
-* '''ua'e''' - above; over / on
-* '''uaye''' - from [moving out of or away from]
-* '''ya'e''' - near; close to
-* '''yomo''' - to the right of
-* '''yoso''' - to the left of
-{{Col-end}}
-== Function words ==
+== consonants ==
+* Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
-Function words serve only grammatical functions. They have no meaning by themselves. Function words have to be used together with Content Words to form a meaningful sentence or phrase. Function words are a much smaller category in number but more frequently used. '''Kala''' function words are divided into a few subcategories; particles, conjunctions, and interjections.
+{|class=wikitable style="text-align: center; width:40%;"
+|+Consonants
+!
+!Labial
+!colspan=2|Alveolar
+!Palatal
+!Velar
+!Glottal
+|-
+! Nasal
+| m ('''m''')
+|colspan=2|n ('''n''')
+| ɲ ('''ny''')
+|
+|
+|-
+! Plosive
+| p~b ('''p''')
+|colspan=2|t~d ('''t''')
+|
+| k~g ('''k''')
+| ʔ (''' ' ''')
+|-
+! Affricate
+|
+| ts~t͡ʃ ('''ts''') || t͡ɬ~tl ('''tl''')
+|
+|
+|
+|-
+! Continuant
+|
+| s~ʃ ('''s''') || l~ɾ ('''l''')
+|
+|
+| h~ɦ ('''h''')
+|-
+! Semivowel
+|
+|colspan=2|
+| j ('''y''')
+| w ('''u''')
+|
+|}
-=== Particles ===
+The [[wp:Glottal_stop|glottal stop]] is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.
-==== ke ====
+* '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
-: The direct object particle. It can often be omitted, especially in simple phrases, when the object is understood.
+* '''Labialized''':/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
+* '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/
-* '''na mita anya'''
+=== free variation ===
-: <small>1sg dog see</small>
+Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of [[wp:Free_variation|allophonic variation]]. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.
-: ''I see the dog.''
-* '''na tahe yempa ke mita anyaye'''
+=== Sound Changes ===
-: <small>1sg be.under table O dog see-PST</small>
+The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/.  The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, '''sama''' (''sun; star; solar'') is /ˈʃaːma/ where '''sitsa''' (''heat; hot'') is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and '''tsisi''' (''embroider; embroidery'') is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.
-: ''I saw the dog under the table.''
-=== Conjunctions ===
+== vowels ==
+{| class="wikitable"
+|+Vowels
+!
+!'''Front'''
+!'''Back'''
+|-align=center
+!'''Close'''
+|{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~ʊ}} '''(u)'''
+|-align=center
+!'''Mid'''
+|{{IPA|e~ɛ}} '''(e)''' || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)'''
+|-align=center
+!'''Open'''
+|colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~ɑ}} '''(a)'''
+|}
-There are three coordinating conjunctions in Kala and three correlative conjunctions:
+'''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
-{{col-begin}}
+=== diphthongs ===
-{{col-break}}
+Phonetically, '''Kala''' has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] '''ai''' and [aʊ̯] '''ao''', but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] '''ua''', [we] '''ue''', [ja] '''ya''', [je] '''ye''', and [jo] '''yo'''. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] '''uai''' and [jaʊ̯] '''yao''' are very rare but should be noted as possible.
-==== coordinating ====
-* '''ma''' - and; also
-:: '''mita ina ma moku'''
-:: <small>dog eat and sleep</small>
-:: ''The dog eats and sleeps.''
-* '''ua''' - or
+== phonotactics ==
-:: '''mita ina ua moku'''
+The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) '''(N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i)''' where '''(N)''' indicates nasalization, and '''u''' and '''y''' indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.
-:: <small>dog eat or sleep</small>
-:: ''The dog eats or sleeps.''
-* '''ehe''' ('''me''') - but; yet
+There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as '''tata''' for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).
-:: '''mita ina me mokunke'''
-:: <small>dog eat but sleep-NEG</small>
-:: ''The dog eats but does not sleep.''
-{{col-break}}
-==== correlative ====
+When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by '''–u''', which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be '''tsuala’u''' meaning ''“to become prosperous”'', from '''tsuala''' ''“prosper; be prosperous”'' and the suffix '''–la''' meaning ''“become; change into”'', used to indicate the mutative.
-* '''yema''' - both X and Y
-:: '''mita ina yema empa'''
-:: <small>dog eat both.X.and.Y run</small>
-:: ''The dog both eats and runs.''<br>''The dog is eating and running simultaneously.''
-* '''ue''' - either X or Y
+=== gemination ===
-:: '''mita ina ue empa'''
+Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. '''naka''' (''woman'') can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas '''nakkan''' (''chieftess'') can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.
-:: <small>dog eat either.X.or.Y run</small>
-:: ''The dog is either eating or running.''
-* '''uenke''' ('''uek''') - neither X nor Y
+=== syllables ===
-:: '''mita ina uenke empa'''
+Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings '''–m''' (indicating general plural, deriving from '''ma''', meaning ''“and, also”''), '''-n''' (indicating accusative case, deriving from '''no''', meaning ''“thing, object”''), and '''–k''' (indicating negative mood, deriving from '''nke''', meaning ''“no, not”'').
-:: <small>dog eat neither.X.nor.Y run</small>
-:: ''The dog is neither eating nor running.''
-{{col-end}}
-=== interjections ===
+=== syllable chart ===
+{| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;"
+|+the 136 basic Kala syllables
+|-
+!
+! a
+! e
+! i
+! o
+! u
+! ua
+! ue
+! ya
+! ye
+! yo
+! ai
+! ao
+! uai
+! yao
+|-
+! p
+| align="center"|''(m)pa''
+| align="center"|''(m)pe''
+| align="center"|''(m)pi''
+| align="center"|''(m)po''
+| align="center"|''(m)pu''
+| align="center"|''pua''
+| align="center"|''pue''
+| align="center"|''pya''
+| align="center"|''pye''
+| align="center"|''pyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''pai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''pao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''puai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''pyao''</font>
+|-
+! t
+| align="center"|''(n)ta''
+| align="center"|''(n)te''
+| align="center"|''(n)ti''
+| align="center"|''(n)to''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tao''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+|-
+! k
+| align="center"|''(n)ka''
+| align="center"|''(n)ke''
+| align="center"|''(n)ki''
+| align="center"|''(n)ko''
+| align="center"|''(n)ku''
+| align="center"|''kua''
+| align="center"|''kue''
+| align="center"|''kya''
+| align="center"|''kye''
+| align="center"|''kyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kuai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kyao''</font>
+|-
+! m
+| align="center"|''ma''
+| align="center"|''me''
+| align="center"|''mi''
+| align="center"|''mo''
+| align="center"|''mu''
+| align="center"|''mua''
+| align="center"|''mue''
+| align="center"|''mya''
+| align="center"|''mye''
+| align="center"|''myo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''mai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''mao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''muai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''myao''</font>
+|-
+! n
+| align="center"|''na''
+| align="center"|''ne''
+| align="center"|''ni''
+| align="center"|''no''
+| align="center"|''nu''
+| align="center"|''nua''
+| align="center"|''nue''
+| align="center"|''nya''
+| align="center"|''nye''
+| align="center"|''nyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nuai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nyao''</font>
+|-
+! s
+| align="center"|''sa''
+| align="center"|''se''
+| align="center"|''si''
+| align="center"|''so''
+| align="center"|''su''
+| align="center"|''sua''
+| align="center"|''sue''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''sai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''sao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''suai''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+|-
+! h
+| align="center"|''ha''
+| align="center"|''he''
+| align="center"|''hi''
+| align="center"|''ho''
+| align="center"|''hu''
+| align="center"|''hua''
+| align="center"|''hue''
+| align="center"|''hya''
+| align="center"|''hye''
+| align="center"|''hyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''hai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''hao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''huai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''hyao''</font>
+|-
+! ts
+| align="center"|''tsa''
+| align="center"|''tse''
+| align="center"|''tsi''
+| align="center"|''tso''
+| align="center"|''tsu''
+| align="center"|''tsua''
+| align="center"|''tsue''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsuai''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+|-
+! tl
+| align="center"|''tla''
+| align="center"|''tle''
+| align="center"|''tli''
+| align="center"|''tlo''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlao''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+|-
+! l
+| align="center"|''la''
+| align="center"|''le''
+| align="center"|''li''
+| align="center"|''lo''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''lai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''lao''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+|-
+! -
+| align="center"|''a''
+| align="center"|''e''
+| align="center"|''i''
+| align="center"|''o''
+| align="center"|''u''
+| align="center"|''ua''
+| align="center"|''ue''
+| align="center"|''ya''
+| align="center"|''ye''
+| align="center"|''yo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''ai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''ao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''uai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''yao''</font>
+|}
-The most common interjections in Kala are as follows;
+<small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The '''A-O''' columns are called '''''mpalo''''' and are the most common, the '''U-YO''' are called '''''puhyo''''', the '''AI-YAO'''/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as '''''paihyao'''''.</small>
-* '''kya''' - imperative particle
+=== collating order ===
+The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the [[Kala/writing#Naua|'''Naua''']] script.
-* '''kyo''' - imperative particle
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
+! Consonants
-* '''kyo'a''' - imperative particle
+| '''p'''
+| '''t'''
-* '''nka''' - emphatic negative
+| '''k'''
+| '''m'''
-* '''ya''' - vocative particle
+| '''n'''
+| '''s'''
-* '''a''' - affirmative
+| '''h'''
+| '''ts'''
-* '''aya''' - expresses strong emotions such as surprise ('ah', 'argh') and pain ('ow')
+| '''tl'''
+| '''l'''
-=== Interjections ===
+|-align=center
+! Vowels
-= Word formation =
+| '''a'''
+| '''e'''
-== Compounding ==
+| '''i'''
+| '''o'''
-== Derivation ==
+| '''u'''
+| '''ua'''
-=== Verbalization ===
+| '''ue'''
+| '''ya'''
-=== Nominalization ===
+| '''ye'''
+| '''yo'''
-= Basic syntax =
+|-align=center
+|}
-The basic structure of a '''Kala''' sentence is:
-AGENT--PATIENT--VERB (or [[wp:Subject–object–verb|'''SOV''']])
-The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:
-* '''mita tlaka anya'''
-: <small>dog man see</small>
-: ''The dog sees the man.''
-* '''tlaka mita anya'''
-: <small>man dog see</small>
-: ''The man sees the dog.''
-In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.
-== Simple sentences ==
-=== Intransitive clauses ===
-Intransitive clauses in Kala minimally consist of a subject followed by an intransitive verb, giving SV word order.
-* '''nta'i moku'''
-: <small>baby sleep</small>
-: ''The baby sleeps.''
-* '''mita ina'''
-: <small>dog eat</small>
-: ''The dog eats.''
-* '''sama nala'''
-: <small>sun shine</small>
-: ''The sun shines.''
-* '''kamahi ke naha ya'e'''
-: <small>town-DIM O river be.near</small>
-: ''There is a village near the river.''
-* '''ke apua muyapua'''
-: <small>O song do-PFV</small>
-: ''The song has been sung.''
-=== Transitive clauses ===
-Clauses with transitive verbs follow a SOV pattern.
-* '''ona ke matla kuha'''
-: <small>mother O stew cook</small>
-: ''The mother is cooking stew.''
-* '''tasako ke masala yake'''
-: <small>hunt-AG O deer-INDEF chase</small>
-: ''The hunters are chasing some deer.''
-* '''kyali ke itohuatla peha'''
-: <small>spear O tree-oak pierce</small>
-: ''The spear pierces the oak tree.''
-* '''tasako ke mitla hita ma ne masa mata'''
-: <small>hunt-AG O arrow cast and DO deer kill</small>
-: ''The hunter shoots an arrow and kills the deer.''
-=== Predication ===
-Nominal predicates are formed with the copula '''a''', using SOV word order. However, more common is the idiomatic omission of the copula and object marker.
-* '''tsola ke haya a'''
+Based on this order, '''ma''' would come before '''ha''', etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. '''mpa''' comes after '''pyo''' but before '''ta'''. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]]. This order can be vocalized as ''“pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”'', this aides in memorization and organization.
-: <small>fox O animal COP</small>
-: ''The fox is an animal.'' (grammatical)
-* '''tsola haya'''
+== stress ==
-: <small>fox animal</small>
+[[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;
-: ''The fox is an animal.'' (idiomatic)
-* '''itlaka ke taya nayo a'''
+* '''<u>ma</u>sa''' - /ˈmaːsa/ → '''ma<u>sa</u>ko''' - /maːˈsako/
-: <small>PROX-man O husband 1sg.POSS COP</small>
+* '''tli<u>ya</u>ma''' - /tɬiːˈjama/ → '''tliya<u>ma</u>lo''' - /tɬiːjaˈmalo/
-: ''This man is my husband.'' (grammatical)
+* '''kam''' - /kaːm/ → '''<u>ka</u>myo''' - /ˈkaːmʲo/
+* '''empa<u>ha</u>pak''' - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → '''empaha<u>pa</u>yek''' - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/
-* '''itlaka ke taya nayo'''
+= orthography =
-: <small>PROX-man O husband 1sg.POSS</small>
-: ''This man is my husband.'' (idiomatic)
-=== Oblique participants ===
+= morphology =
-Kala verb phrases have only a single object slot. As a result, the patient of a ditransitive clause needs to be introduced with the help of a preposition.
+== nouns ==
-==== Dative and benefactive ====
+=== pronouns ===
-Dative participants are marked with the preposition '''nya''' ‘for, by, via’.
+=== determiners and demonstratives ===
-* '''ntahi ke nyotlomi nya kinti yeta'''
+== verbs ==
-: <small>child O nut-PAUC BEN squirrel give</small>
-: ''The child gives a few nuts to the squirrel.''
-* '''ikema nya na tlahi'''
+=== passive ===
-: <small>PROX-task BEN 1sg be.easy</small>
-: ''This task is easy for me.''
-Benefactive participants are also marked with the preposition '''nya''' ‘for, by, via’.
+=== causative ===
-* '''mekatlo nya ntakum ke tsani yomu'''
+=== inceptive ===
-: <small>holy-AG BEN sibling-PL O story recite</small>
-: ''The shaman recites a story for the siblings.''
-Antibenefactive participants are marked like ordinary datives using '''nya''':
+=== infinitive ===
-* '''tekim nya kamahi namyo tanyaye'''
+=== copula ===
-: <small>enemy-PL BEN town-DIM 1pl.POSS destroy-PST</small>
-: ''The enemies destroyed our village.''
-==== Instrumental ====
+=== stative verbs ===
-==== Comitative ====
-==== Locative ====
-=== Negation ===
+= derivational morphology =
-Negation, both of noun phrases and of clauses, is made with the negating suffix '''-k''' (or '''-nke'''), which affixes to the negated element. Kala utilizes multiple negation, like '''tlok ak''' (<small>AG-NEG COP-NEG</small>) - (there isn't anyone / there is no-one).
+== nominalizers ==
-* '''intahi ke nok onyotlik'''
+== reduplication ==
-: <small>PROX-child O thing-NEG learn-FUT-NEG</small>
-: ''This child will learn nothing.''
-* '''mita inyak'''
+== verbalizers ==
-: <small>dog hunger-NEG</small>
-: ''The dog is not hungry.''
-The suffix '''-nke''' also marks the [[wp:Abessive_case|abessive]], meaning ''without, or lacking''.
+= syntax =
-* '''ha ke’e hatsanke nya potsi hayo kayoye'''
+== word order ==
-: <small>3SG so luck-ABE for wallet 3SG.POSS lose-PST</small>
-: ''He was unlucky enough to lose his wallet.''
-=== Interrogatives ===
+== case usage ==
-There are two types of questions: [[Wikipedia:Yes–no_question|Polar]], those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers.
+== noun phrases ==
-==== Polar questions ====
+== numbers ==
-Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.
+== comparisons ==
-{{col-begin}}
+== prepositions ==
-{{col-break}}
-* '''mita ina'''
-: <small>dog eat</small>
-: ''The dog eats.''
-* '''nta'i moku'''
+== tense usage ==
-: <small>baby sleep</small>
-: ''The baby is sleeping. / The baby sleeps.''
-* '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye'''
+== moods ==
-: <small>2SG O elephant see-PST</small>
-: ''You saw the elephant.''
-* '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye'''
+== aspect ==
-: <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST</small>
-: ''The doctor gave you the medicine.''
-{{col-break}}
-* '''mita ina ka'''
-: <small>dog eat Q</small>
-: ''Does the dog eat?''
-* '''nta'i moku ka'''
+== conditionals ==
-: <small>baby sleep Q</small>
-: ''Is the baby sleeping?''
-* '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye ka'''
+== subordinate clauses ==
-: <small>2SG O elephant see-PST Q</small>
-: ''Did you see the elephant?''
-* '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye ka'''
-: <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST Q</small>
-: ''Did the doctor give you the medicine?''
-{{col-end}}
-==== Content questions ====
-Questions that give a list of possible answers are formed like polar questions, with the conjunction '''ue''' ‘or’ introducing each alternative (which must appear in the form of a noun phrase).
-* '''ta ke nkapa ue maya inuue ka'''
-: <small>2SG O beer or.EXCL water drink-VOL Q</small>
-: ''Do you want to drink beer or water?''
-* '''uala ta ke sinka mataye ue empa ma koma ka'''
-: <small>truly 2sg O lion kill-PST or.EXCL flee CONJ hide Q</small>
-: ''Did you really kill the lion, or did you run away and hide?''
-Open content questions are most easily formed with the correlatives, such as '''ko''' ‘person’, '''mo''' ‘place’, '''to''' ‘manner’, etc. These correlatives always appear clause-initially:
-* '''ko ta ka'''
-: <small>person 2sg Q</small>
-: ''Who are you?''
-* '''itla ka'''
-: <small>this Q</small>
-: ''What is this?''
-* '''to kihu ka'''
-: <small>manner weather Q</small>
-: ''What's the weather like?''
-The other type contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
-|+ kanyo
-|-
-!
-! Kala
-! gloss
-! English
-|-
-! object
-| '''ke mita ina ka''' || <small>O dog eat Q</small> || ''What does the dog eat?''
-|-
-! person
-| '''ko ina ka''' || <small>person eat Q</small> || ''Who eats?''
-|-
-! possession
-| '''koyo mita ina ka''' || <small>person-POSS dog eat Q</small> || ''Whose dog eats?''
-|-
-! manner
-| '''to mita ina ka''' || <small>manner dog eat Q</small> || ''How does the dog eat?''
-|-
-! place
-| '''mo mita ina ka''' || <small>place dog eat Q</small> || ''Where does the dog eat?''
-|-
-! reason
-| '''nye mita ina ka''' || <small>reason dog eat Q</small> || ''Why does the dog eat?''
-|-
-! time
-| '''ama mita ina ka''' || <small>time dog eat Q</small> || ''When does the dog eat?''
-|-
-! amount
-| '''uku mita ina ka''' || <small>amount dog eat Q</small> || ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
-|-
-! which
-| '''ula mita ina ka''' || <small>any dog eat Q</small> || ''Which dog eats?''
-|}
-=== Passives ===
+== negatives ==
-=== Reflexives and reciprocals ===
-== Complex sentences ==
-=== Clause coordination ===
-=== Coordination of noun phrases ===
-=== Complement clauses ===
-=== Relative clauses ===
-=== Adverbial clauses ===
-= Serial verb construction =
+== questions ==
-== Sequential events ==
-=== Lexicalized sequential serials ===
-== Grammatical use of serial verbs ==
-=== Causatives ===
-=== Comparison ===
-=== Motion verbs ===
-==== Direction and deixis ====
-==== Manner of motion ====
-==== Source and target ====
-=== Posture and orientation ===
-=== Aspect ===

User:Masako/pataka: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 07:37, 24 January 2022

introduction

phonology

consonants

free variation

Sound Changes

vowels

diphthongs

phonotactics

gemination

syllables

syllable chart

collating order

stress

orthography

morphology

nouns

pronouns

determiners and demonstratives

verbs

passive

causative

inceptive

infinitive

copula

stative verbs

derivational morphology

nominalizers

reduplication

verbalizers

syntax

word order

case usage

noun phrases

numbers

comparisons

prepositions

tense usage

moods

aspect

conditionals

subordinate clauses

negatives

questions

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