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| akana.conlang.org/wiki/Ronc_Tyu
| | = introduction = |
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| = Introduction = | | = phonology = |
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| Kala is a personal [[Wikipedia:Constructed_language|conlang]] (actually more of an [[Wikipedia:Artistic_language#Personal_languages|artlang]]), based on my aesthetic preferences, not attached to any [[Wikipedia:Worldbuilding|conworld]] or conculture. This language draws on natlangs (natural language), other conlangs, and of course imagination. Kala was started in late 2009. The phonemic inventory is based on Classical Nahuatl while the syllable structure and vowels are based on the strict (C)V structure of Japanese, and the presence of prenasalized stops is influenced by Bantu languages. Kala’s grammar was initially based on Japanese but has changed based on influence from several natural and constructed languages. Many – if not most – of Kala lexemes are derived or inspired by natural languages. A few have been taken from previous projects or constructed languages such as '''Ajara''' (a cipherlang from my youth), '''[[Qatama]]''' (a conlang that I abandoned several years ago).
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| == Characteristics ==
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| Kala is a context-oriented language. In most cases, the more important elements of a phrase are clustered toward the end of the sentence (e.g. verbs and their modifiers). The less important an element is to the understanding of a sentence, the more likely it is to be dropped. Consequently, many Kala sentences end-up consisting solely of a verb (or adjectival verb). More so in conversation than in written Kala, these short phrases are grammatically correct and natural. Here are some examples:
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| * '''muya ka''' - <small>do Q</small> - ''(What are you) doing?''
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| * '''ina''' - <small>eat</small> - ''(I am) eating.''
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| * '''tamatse''' - <small>good-seem</small> - ''(That looks) good.''
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| * '''ueha ka''' - <small>want Q</small> - ''(Do you) want (some)?''
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| * '''nyasak''' - <small>thank-NEG</small> - ''No, thank (you).''
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| Notice that none of the above contain any pronouns, or nouns. Any contextually understood elements may be omitted unless indispensable.
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| == Types of words ==
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| Kala has two parts of speech. Nouns and verbs are [[wp:Content_word|content words]], while particles (and others) tend to be only [[wp:Function_word|functional]]. Many content words can be used as both nouns and verbs. The best, and most common example would be <font face="gungsuh"><big><b>이나</b></big></font> '''ina''' /iːˈna/ ‘food; to eat’.
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| * '''na ina''' - <small>1SG eat</small> - ''I eat.''
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| ** '''na ke ina anya''' - <small>1SG O food see</small> - ''I see the food.''
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| == Borrowing ==
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| Kala borrows extensively from various natural languages. This is a very small sample of borrowings:
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| ''See also: [[Kala/etymology|etymology]]''
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| * '''pato''' – ''duck (Anatidae)''; from Spanish [[Wiktionary:pato|''pato'']]
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| * '''kala''' – ''to speak, talk, converse''; from Arabic [[Wiktionary:تكلم|''takallama'']]
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| * '''myonta''' – ''to allow, permit''; from Finnish [[Wiktionary:myöntää|''myöntää'']]
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| * '''na''' – ''I, me''; from Arabic [[Wiktionary:أنا|''ʾanā'']]
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| * '''tsenka''' – ''orange''; from Chinese [[Wiktionary:橙|''chéng'']]
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| * '''uasi''' – ''to take, get, acquire''; from Lakota [[Wiktionary:wasi'chu|''wasichu'']]
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| * '''a''' – ''to be, exist, yes''; from Japanese [[Wiktionary:ある|''aru'']]
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| = Phonology =
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| == Consonants ==
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| | == consonants == |
| * Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes. | | * Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes. |
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| |colspan=2|t~d ('''t''') | | |colspan=2|t~d ('''t''') |
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| | k~g ('''g''') | | | k~g ('''k''') |
| | ʔ (''' ' ''') | | | ʔ (''' ' ''') |
| |- | | |- |
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| |} | | |} |
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| | The [[wp:Glottal_stop|glottal stop]] is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs. |
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| * '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/ | | * '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/ |
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| * '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/ | | * '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/ |
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| <small>Note: Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short.</small>
| | === free variation === |
| | Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of [[wp:Free_variation|allophonic variation]]. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed. |
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| == Vowels == | | === Sound Changes === |
| | The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/. The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, '''sama''' (''sun; star; solar'') is /ˈʃaːma/ where '''sitsa''' (''heat; hot'') is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and '''tsisi''' (''embroider; embroidery'') is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/. |
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| | == vowels == |
| {| class="wikitable" | | {| class="wikitable" |
| |+Vowels | | |+Vowels |
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| |-align=center | | |-align=center |
| !'''Close''' | | !'''Close''' |
| |{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~u:}} '''(u)''' | | |{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~ʊ}} '''(u)''' |
| |-align=center | | |-align=center |
| !'''Mid''' | | !'''Mid''' |
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| |-align=center | | |-align=center |
| !'''Open''' | | !'''Open''' |
| |colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~a:}} '''(a)''' | | |colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~ɑ}} '''(a)''' |
| |} | | |} |
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| '''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug'). | | '''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug'). |
| === Diphthongs ===
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| Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] and [aʊ̯], but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa], [we], [ja], [je], and [jo]. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] and [jaʊ̯] are very rare but should be noted as possible. | | === diphthongs === |
| | Phonetically, '''Kala''' has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] '''ai''' and [aʊ̯] '''ao''', but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] '''ua''', [we] '''ue''', [ja] '''ya''', [je] '''ye''', and [jo] '''yo'''. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] '''uai''' and [jaʊ̯] '''yao''' are very rare but should be noted as possible. |
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| | == phonotactics == |
| | The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) '''(N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i)''' where '''(N)''' indicates nasalization, and '''u''' and '''y''' indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern. |
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| == Phonotactics ==
| | There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as '''tata''' for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms). |
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| '''Kala''' words are typically made up of [[wp:Syllable#Open_and_closed|open syllables]] of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most words having syllables exclusively of this type. There is a limited set of syllables allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. | | When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by '''–u''', which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be '''tsuala’u''' meaning ''“to become prosperous”'', from '''tsuala''' ''“prosper; be prosperous”'' and the suffix '''–la''' meaning ''“become; change into”'', used to indicate the mutative. |
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| * /l/ cannot occur word initially (except in loan words and [[wp:Toponymy|toponyms]]).
| | === gemination === |
| | Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. '''naka''' (''woman'') can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas '''nakkan''' (''chieftess'') can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination. |
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| === Syllables === | | === syllables === |
| | Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings '''–m''' (indicating general plural, deriving from '''ma''', meaning ''“and, also”''), '''-n''' (indicating accusative case, deriving from '''no''', meaning ''“thing, object”''), and '''–k''' (indicating negative mood, deriving from '''nke''', meaning ''“no, not”''). |
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| | === syllable chart === |
| {| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;" | | {| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;" |
| |+the 136 basic Kala syllables | | |+the 136 basic Kala syllables |
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| |} | | |} |
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| <small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word.</small> | | <small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The '''A-O''' columns are called '''''mpalo''''' and are the most common, the '''U-YO''' are called '''''puhyo''''', the '''AI-YAO'''/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as '''''paihyao'''''.</small> |
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| == Stress == | | === collating order === |
| [[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV).
| | The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the [[Kala/writing#Naua|'''Naua''']] script. |
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| = Orthography =
| | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;" |
| | | ! Consonants |
| * Kala conscripts are many and varied. Rather than multiple pages explaining each of them, [[Kala/writing|'''this''']] page serves as a working list with a consistent example across each script.
| | | '''p''' |
| | | | '''t''' |
| = Types of words =
| | | '''k''' |
| | | | '''m''' |
| == Content words ==
| | | '''n''' |
| | | | '''s''' |
| === Nouns ===
| | | '''h''' |
| | | | '''ts''' |
| Nouns in '''Kala''' are inflected only for number. Other relevant distinctions are animacy and possession, but these are not marked on the noun itself. Animacy plays a role both for pronoun choice and for the validity of some syntactic constructions.
| | | '''tl''' |
| | | | '''l''' |
| ==== Gender ====
| | |-align=center |
| | | ! Vowels |
| [[wp:Grammatical_gender|Gender]] is not normally marked but can be by '''-na''' (FEM), '''-ta''' (MASC), or nouns such as '''naka''', '''tlaka''', '''nahi''', or '''tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. A gender neutral suffix, '''-nta''' may be used when the gender is unknown or ambiguous.
| | | '''a''' |
| | | | '''e''' |
| ==== Number Marking ====
| | | '''i''' |
| | | | '''o''' |
| * Most nouns in '''Kala''' distinguish singular and plural number. There are several different “regular” ways to form the plural, which are to a certain degree predictable from the phonological shape of the singular form. Nouns can be marked [[wp:Plural|plural]] ('''PL''') by '''-m''' (or '''-lo''' if the final syllable contains /m/ or /p/, or, if the word begins with a vowel).
| | | '''u''' |
| ** In general the plural suffix is not used when the plurality of the noun is clear from context. For example, while the English sentence "there are three dogs" would use the plural "dogs" instead of the singular "dog", the '''Kala''' sentence '''mita ha'o a''' "dog three exist" keeps the word '''mita''' "dog" in its unmarked form, as the numeral makes the plural marker redundant.
| | | '''ua''' |
| ** The collective plural is marked by '''tli'''-, derived from '''tatli''', meaning "group; collection; gathering". It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the [[wp:Collective_noun|collective]] plural ('''COL''').
| | | '''ue''' |
| ::
| | | '''ya''' |
| * '''ata''' - name > '''atalo''' - names
| | | '''ye''' |
| * '''mita''' – dog > '''mitam''' - dogs > '''tlimita''' – a pack of dogs
| | | '''yo''' |
| * '''yama''' – mountain > '''tliyamalo''' – mountain ranges
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| * '''tsaka''' – house > '''tlitsaka''' – neighborhood
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| * '''puku''' – clothing > '''tlipuku''' – wardrobe
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| ==== Pronouns ====
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| '''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. There is a special pronoun '''na'am''' which is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| Personal pronouns:
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| * '''na''' - 1st person
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| * '''ta''' - 2nd person
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| * '''ha''' - 3rd person
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| * '''tla''' - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for [[wp:Animacy|inanimate]] nouns)
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| {{col-break}}
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| Modifiers:
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| * '''-m''' - plural
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| * '''-nku''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_pronoun|reciprocal]] (only attaches to plural pronouns)
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| * '''e-''' - patient
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| * '''-i''' - reflexive
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| * '''-yo''' - possessive
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| {{col-break}}
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| Other pronouns include:
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| * '''tlokua''' - everyone, everybody
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| * '''kola''' - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
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| * '''tlok''' - no one, nobody
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| * '''nokua''' - everything
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| * '''nola''' - something; whatever, anything
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| * '''nok''' - nothing
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| {{col-end}}
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;" | |
| |+ nkalo
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| |-
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| !
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| ! Agent
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| ! Patient | |
| ! Reflexive
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| ! Possessive
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| ! Reciprocal
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| |-
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| ! 1sg
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| | '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''na'i''' || '''nayo''' || '''-''' | |
| |-
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| ! 2sg
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| | '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''ta'i''' || '''tayo''' || '''-''' | |
| |- | |
| ! 3sg | |
| | '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''ha'i''' || '''hayo''' || '''-''' | |
| |-
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| ! 4sg
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| | '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tla'i''' || '''tlayo''' || '''-''' | |
| |-
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| ! 1pl<br>1pl exclusive
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| | '''nam'''<br>'''na'am''' || '''enam'''<br>'''ena'am''' || '''nami'''<br>'''na'ami''' || '''namyo'''<br>'''na'amyo''' || '''nanku'''<br>'''na'anku'''
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| |-
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| ! 2pl
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| | '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tami''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tanku''' | |
| |-
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| ! 3pl
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| | '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kami''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kanku''' | |
| |- | |
| ! 4pl
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| | '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlanku'''
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| |} | | |} |
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| ==== Determiners & Demostratives ====
| | Based on this order, '''ma''' would come before '''ha''', etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. '''mpa''' comes after '''pyo''' but before '''ta'''. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]]. This order can be vocalized as ''“pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”'', this aides in memorization and organization. |
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| The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show [[Wikipedia:Deixis|deixis]]. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|proximal]] or first person (objects near to the speaker), [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|medial]] or second person (objects near to the addressee), and [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|distal]] or third person (objects far from both).
| | == stress == |
| | [[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So; |
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| {{col-begin}}
| | * '''<u>ma</u>sa''' - /ˈmaːsa/ → '''ma<u>sa</u>ko''' - /maːˈsako/ |
| {{col-break}}
| | * '''tli<u>ya</u>ma''' - /tɬiːˈjama/ → '''tliya<u>ma</u>lo''' - /tɬiːjaˈmalo/ |
| * '''itla''' ('''i-''') - this (near me) | | * '''kam''' - /kaːm/ → '''<u>ka</u>myo''' - /ˈkaːmʲo/ |
| * '''uatla''' ('''ua-''') - that (near you) | | * '''empa<u>ha</u>pak''' - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → '''empaha<u>pa</u>yek''' - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/ |
| * '''yetla''' ('''ye-''') - that (over there) | |
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| Examples:
| | = orthography = |
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| * '''imitami''' - <small>PROX-dog-few</small> - ''A few of these dogs''
| | = morphology = |
| * '''yemitampa''' - <small>DIST-dog-many</small> - ''Many of those dogs (over there)''
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| * '''uamitali''' - <small>MED-dog-each</small> - ''Each of those dogs (near you)''
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| {{col-break}}
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| Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.
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| * '''kua''' ('''-kua''') - all; every; whole
| | == nouns == |
| * '''oli''' ('''-li''') - each; every
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| * '''ula''' ('''-la''') - whatever; any; some
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| * '''mi''' ('''-mi''') - few; little
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| * '''nke''' ('''-k''') - none
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| * '''mpa''' ('''-mpa''') - many; much; a lot
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| * '''maha''' - more; plus
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| * '''ohi''' - less; fewer
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| {{col-end}}
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| ===== Correlatives ===== | | === pronouns === |
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 1000px;"
| | === determiners and demonstratives === |
| |+ uatse
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| |-
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| !
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| ! Proximal<br>'''i-'''
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| ! Medial<br>'''ua-'''
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| ! Distal<br>'''ye-'''
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| ! Inclusive<br>'''-kua'''
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| ! Negative<br>'''-k'''
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| ! Indefinite<br>'''-la'''
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| |-
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| ! mo<br>''(place)''
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| | '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemua'''<br>over there || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>somewhere; anywhere
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| |-
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| ! ko<br>''(person)''
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| | '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person<br>(over there) || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>someone; anyone
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| |-
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| ! uku<br>''(amount)''
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| | '''iku'''<br>this much || '''uaku'''<br>that much || '''-''' || '''kua'''<br>all; every|| '''ok'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>some; any
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| |-
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| ! ama<br>''(time)''
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| | '''ima'''<br>now, at present || '''uama'''<br>then; at that time || '''-''' || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>sometime; anytime
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| |-
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| ! so<br>''(kind, type)''
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| | '''iso'''<br>this kind || '''so'o'''<br>that kind || '''yeso'''<br>that kind<br>(over there) || '''sokua'''<br>all kinds || '''sok'''<br>no kind (at all) || '''sola'''<br>some/any kind
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| |-
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| ! no<br>''(thing)''
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| | '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that<br>(over there) || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''nok'''<br>nothing; none || '''nola'''<br>something; anything
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| |-
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| ! to<br>''(manner, way)''
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| | '''yoto'''<br>thus; like this; this way|| '''uato'''<br>that way || '''ato'''<br>that way<br>(over there) || '''tokua'''<br>every way || '''tok'''<br>no way || '''tola'''<br>somehow; anyway
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
|
| === Verbs === | | == verbs == |
| '''Kala''' relies on analytic serial verb constructions, and can therefore get by with very little verbal morphology. Each verb has at most two possible forms: the [[wp:Dynamic_verb|''active'']] and the [[wp:Stative_verb|''stative'']]. Passivity is marked on the subject thus verbs are unmarked and must be analyzed based on surrounding morphology. Active verbs solely denote actions and occurrences and never states in Kala. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an attributive and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result.
| |
|
| |
|
| ==== Passivity ==== | | === passive === |
|
| |
|
| The passive voice is formed by prefixing '''e'''- ([[wp:Patient_(grammar)|patient marker]]) to pronouns, and the object marker '''ke''' for nouns, or '''nya''' "for, by, via".
| | === causative === |
|
| |
|
| {{col-begin}}
| | === inceptive === |
| {{col-break}}
| |
|
| |
|
| * '''ha yatsi'''
| | === infinitive === |
| : <small>3sg bite</small>
| |
| : ''He bites.''
| |
|
| |
|
| * '''ha yapo'''
| | === copula === |
| : <small>3sg build</small>
| |
| : ''He builds.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
|
| |
|
| * '''eha yatsi'''
| | === stative verbs === |
| : <small>P.3sg bite</small>
| |
| : ''He is bitten.''
| |
|
| |
|
| * '''etla nya ha yapo'''
| | = derivational morphology = |
| : <small>P.4sg by 3sg build</small>
| |
| : ''It is built by him.''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| ==== Tense ====
| |
|
| |
|
| Kala has three simple tenses; past, present, and future. Present tense is unmarked. However, past ('''-ye''') and future ('''-tli''') tenses can be modified to include immediate future ("''is about to''..."), distant future ("''will...in a long while''"), recent past ("''just'' ..."), and remote past ("...''a long while ago''"). These distinctions are made with the augmentative and diminutive endings '''-ha''' and '''-hi'''.
| | == nominalizers == |
|
| |
|
| * The present tense can show immediacy by using the adverb '''ima''', "now; at this time":
| | == reduplication == |
| :'''ima mita ina''' - <small>now dog eat</small> - ''The dog is eating right now.''
| |
|
| |
|
| * If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted:
| | == verbalizers == |
| :'''yomaye nam ina''' - <small>yesterday 1pl eat</small> - We ate yesterday.
| |
|
| |
|
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
| | = syntax = |
| |+ eme
| |
| |-
| |
| !
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! gloss
| |
| ! English
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Present
| |
| | '''mita ina''' || <small>dog eat</small> || ''The dog eats.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Past
| |
| | '''mita inaye''' || <small>dog eat-PST</small> || ''The dog ate.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Recent Past
| |
| | '''mita inayehi'''<br>or '''-hye''' || <small>dog eat-REC</small> || ''The dog just ate.''<br>(action just finished)
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Remote Past
| |
| | '''mita inayeha''' || <small>dog eat-REM</small> || ''The dog ate long ago.''<br>(before the lifetime of the speaker)
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Future
| |
| | '''mita inatli''' || <small>dog eat-FUT</small> || ''The dog will eat.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Immediate Future
| |
| | '''mita inatlihi'''<br>or '''-tlai''' || <small>dog eat-IMM</small> || ''The dog will eat soon.''<br>(within the day)
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Distant Future
| |
| | '''mita inatliha''' || <small>dog eat-DIS</small> || ''The dog will eat a long while from now.''<br>(months from now)
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
|
| ==== Aspect ==== | | == word order == |
|
| |
|
| There are four aspects in Kala. The progressive, also called the [[Wikipedia:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|continuous]] ['''CONT'''], this is used to express an incomplete action or state in progress at a specific time. It is marked with '''-nko''', from '''nkoso''' - "to continue; proceed; progress". The [[Wikipedia:Perfective_aspect|perfective]] aspect indicates that an action is completed ['''PFV''']. It is often translated by the English present perfect (''have done some-thing''). It is marked with '''-pua''', from '''opua''' - "to end; finish; complete". The [[Wikipedia:Inchoative_aspect|inchoative]] aspect refers to the beginning of a state ['''INCH''']. It is marked with '''-mu''', from '''mula''' - "to begin; start; initiate". The [[Wikipedia:Frequentative|frequentative]] aspect refers to a repeated action ['''FREQ''']. It is marked with '''-nua''', from '''nua''' - "frequent; often; regular".
| | == case usage == |
|
| |
|
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| | == noun phrases == |
| |+ ti'a
| |
| |-
| |
| !
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! gloss
| |
| ! English
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Progressive
| |
| | '''mita inanko''' || <small>dog eat-CONT</small> || ''The dog is eating.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Perfective
| |
| | '''mita inapua''' || <small>dog eat-PFV</small> || ''The dog has eaten.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Inchoative
| |
| | '''mita inamu''' || <small>dog eat-INCH</small> || ''The dog begins to eat.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Frequentative
| |
| | '''mita inanua''' || <small>dog eat-FREQ</small> || ''The dog eats often.''
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
|
| ==== Mood ==== | | == numbers == |
|
| |
|
| The negative mood (always marked finally) is indicated by the suffix –'''k''' or '''–nke''' (when the last syllable contains /k/).
| | == comparisons == |
|
| |
|
| * '''mita inayek''' - <small>dog eat-PST-NEG</small> - ''The dog did not eat.''
| | == prepositions == |
| * '''mita mokunke''' - <small>dog sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog does not sleep.''
| |
|
| |
|
| ==== Affix Ordering ==== | | == tense usage == |
|
| |
|
| Verbs can be marked with several suffixes to add or change meaning. The modals and tense affixes can be added in different order to a verb to create a new meaning…their placement is not always fixed. The negative, adjectival, and plural ending are always final, while other affixes can be varied, but in general they should be ordered:
| | == moods == |
|
| |
|
| <tt>STEM-(SIZE/IMPORTANCE)-(MOOD)-(ASPECT)-(TENSE)-(NEGATIVE)</tt>
| | == aspect == |
|
| |
|
| Example:
| | == conditionals == |
|
| |
|
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| | == subordinate clauses == |
| |+
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Verb Stem
| |
| ! Size/Importance
| |
| ! Mood
| |
| ! Aspect
| |
| ! Tense
| |
| ! Negative
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''empa''' || '''-hi''' || '''-pa''' || '''-nko''' || '''-ye''' || '''-k'''
| |
| |-
| |
| | run || DIM || ABIL || PROG || PST || NEG
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| * '''na empahipankoyek'''
| |
| : <small>1SG run-DIM-able-PROG-PST-NEG</small>
| |
| : ''I was not able to keep jogging.''
| |
| | |
| === adjectives ===
| |
| Kala does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives. This leaves open to interpretation many phrases.
| |
| {{Col-begin}}
| |
| {{Col-break}}
| |
| * '''mita inya''' - <small>dog be.hungry</small>
| |
| ** ''The dog hungers.''
| |
| ** ''The dog is hungry.''
| |
| ** ''The hungry dog.''
| |
| ** ''A hungry dog.''
| |
| {{Col-break}}
| |
| * '''tsaka ketlahi''' - <small>house be.red-DIM</small>
| |
| ** ''The house is a little red.''
| |
| ** ''The light-red house.''
| |
| ** ''A pale red house.''
| |
| {{Col-break}}
| |
| * '''taki saua''' - <small>coat be.wet</small>
| |
| ** ''The coat is wet.''
| |
| ** ''The wet coat.''
| |
| ** ''A wet coat.''
| |
| {{Col-break}}
| |
| * '''umalo tahaku''' - <small>horse-PL be.big-extreme</small>
| |
| ** ''The horses are extremely large.''
| |
| ** ''The very big horses.''
| |
| {{Col-end}}
| |
| ==== comparison ====
| |
| In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the [[Wikipedia:Elative_(gradation)|elative]]. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka'''
| |
| : <small>house 3sg.POSS O 1sg.POSS big-AUG</small>
| |
| : ''His house is bigger than mine.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ke mauam tayo yanaha'''
| |
| : <small>O flower.PL 2sg.POSS yellow-AUG</small>
| |
| : ''Your flowers are the most yellow.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''iyapo ke tsaka tayo pakoha'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-building O home 2sg new-AUG</small>
| |
| : ''This building is newer than your home.''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| ==== relative ====
| |
| In a relative clause, the verb has the suffix '''-tle''' (or '''-le''' if the final syllable contains /tl/) added to it. The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses. The use of participles in Kala is rather different than in English and at first sight is difficult to understand. This is mainly due to the fact that the relative pronouns ''who, what, which, where'' are not used in Kala as in English.
| |
| | |
| * '''yalapa''' - ''to be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapatle''' - ''who/which/that can walk''
| |
| * '''yalapak''' - ''to not be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapanketle''' - ''who/which/that can't walk''
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| This nominalizes the verb in some cases, and makes it possible for it to be either the subject or the object.
| |
| | |
| * '''na ke tlaka nya inama talatle unya'''
| |
| : <small>1sg O man for eat-time come-REL know</small>
| |
| : ''I know the man who is coming to lunch.''
| |
| | |
| * '''ke naka patlole pako'''
| |
| : <small>O woman sweep-REL young</small>
| |
| : ''The woman who is sweeping is young.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| The relative suffix is most often in the final position. In some cases, it may be followed by the negative '''-k'''.
| |
| | |
| * '''itsaka na sutahuetle'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-REL</small>
| |
| : ''This is the house in which I live.''
| |
| | |
| * '''itsaka na sutahueyetlek'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-PST-REL-NEG</small>
| |
| : ''This is the house in which I did not live.''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| | |
| === adpositionals ===
| |
| Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. There is one general locative (-'''hue''') which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”. Here are some common verbs used as [[wp:Preposition_and_postposition|adpositions]]:
| |
| {{Col-begin}}
| |
| {{Col-2}}
| |
| * '''pahe''' - against; touching
| |
| * '''pa'e''' - apart from; other than; except for
| |
| * '''paye''' - beyond; exceeding; farther than
| |
| * '''pue''' - after; back; behind; rear
| |
| * '''tahe''' - below; beneath; under
| |
| * '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at [moving toward]
| |
| * '''kaye''' - around; encircling; surrounding
| |
| * '''mahe''' - around; approximate; close to
| |
| * '''ma'a''' - with [accompanied by / furnished with]
| |
| * '''ma'e''' - before; in front
| |
| * '''maye''' - between; among
| |
| {{Col-2}}
| |
| * '''nahe ''' - in [located inside of]; internal
| |
| * '''nyaue''' - outside of; exterior to
| |
| * '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
| |
| * '''saye''' - along; following [a line]
| |
| * '''hue / -hue''' - at [in the same location as] [LOC]
| |
| * '''tsa'e''' - across; through
| |
| * '''ua'e''' - above; over / on
| |
| * '''uaye''' - from [moving out of or away from]
| |
| * '''ya'e''' - near; close to
| |
| * '''yomo''' - to the right of
| |
| * '''yoso''' - to the left of
| |
| {{Col-end}}
| |
| | |
| === Numbers ===
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
| |
| |+
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! number
| |
| ! English
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! number
| |
| ! English
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! number
| |
| ! English
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ye'o''' || 0 || zero || '''tsa'o''' || 6 || six || '''nya'o''' || 500 || five hundred
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''ka'o''' || 7 || seven || '''tle'o''' || 10<sup>3</sup> || (one) thousand
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ta'o''' || 2 || two || '''pa'o''' || 8 || eight || '''mue'o''' || 10<sup>4</sup> || ten thousand
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ha'o''' || 3 || three || '''sa'o''' || 9 || nine || '''kye'o''' || 10<sup>5</sup> || (one) hundred thousand
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ma'o''' || 4 || four || '''ue'o''' || 10 || ten || '''nte'o''' || 10<sup>6</sup> || (one) million
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ya'o''' || 5 || five || '''nye'o''' || 100 || (one) hundred || '''hue'o''' || 10<sup>9</sup> || (one) billion
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ==== Forming Larger Numbers ====
| |
| | |
| * '''uena'o''' - eleven / 11
| |
| * '''taue'o''' - twenty / 20
| |
| * '''nyeka'o''' - one hundred seven / 107
| |
| * '''hanyetauetsa'o''' (''long form'') / '''hatatsa'o''' (''short form'') - three hundred twenty six / 326
| |
| * '''tsatletauema'o''' - six thousand and twenty four / 6024
| |
| | |
| ==== Other Number Forms ====
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| |
| |+
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! number
| |
| ! English
| |
| ! ordinal
| |
| ! multiple
| |
| ! fractional
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''kina'o'''<br>first || '''tina'o'''<br>once || -
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ueta'o''' || 12 || twelve || '''kiueta'o'''<br>twelfth || '''tiueta'o'''<br>twelve times || '''iueta'o'''<br>a twelfth
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''yauema'o'''<br>'''(yama'o)''' || 54 || fifty four || '''kiyama'o'''<br>fifty fourth || '''tiyama'o'''<br>54 times || '''iyama'o'''<br>a fifty fourth
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''nyetsa'o''' || 106 || one hundred (and) six || '''kinyetsa'o'''<br>106<sup>th</sup> || '''tinyetsa'o'''<br>106 times || '''inyetsa'o'''<br>a 106<sup>th</sup>
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''katle'o''' || 7000 || seven thousand || '''kikatle'o'''<br>seven thousandth || '''tikatle'o'''<br>7000 times || '''ikatle'o'''<br>1/7000
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ==== Math Operations ====
| |
| | |
| * '''ha'o ma ya'o ke pa'o a'''
| |
| : <small>3 and 5 O 8 COP</small>
| |
| : ''Three plus five is eight.''
| |
| | |
| * '''tsa'o ma ya'ok ke na'o a'''
| |
| : <small>6 and 5-NEG O 1 COP</small>
| |
| : ''Six and five-less is one.''
| |
| | |
| * '''ha'o ma tima'o ke ueta'o a'''
| |
| : <small>3 and multiple-4 O 12 COP</small>
| |
| : ''Three times four is twelve.''
| |
| | |
| * '''tama'o ma ha'o ke pa'o yeka'''
| |
| : <small>24 and 3 O 8 division</small>
| |
| : ''Twenty-four divided by three is eight.''
| |
| | |
| == Function words ==
| |
| | |
| Function words serve only grammatical functions. They have no meaning by themselves. Function words have to be used together with Content Words to form a meaningful sentence or phrase. Function words are a much smaller category in number but more frequently used. '''Kala''' function words are divided into a few subcategories; particles, conjunctions, and interjections.
| |
| | |
| === Particles ===
| |
| | |
| ==== ke ====
| |
| : The direct object particle. It can often be omitted, especially in simple phrases, when the object is understood.
| |
| | |
| * '''na mita anya'''
| |
| : <small>1sg dog see</small>
| |
| : ''I see the dog.''
| |
| | |
| * '''na tahe yempa ke mita anyaye'''
| |
| : <small>1sg be.under table O dog see-PST</small>
| |
| : ''I saw the dog under the table.''
| |
| | |
| === Conjunctions ===
| |
| | |
| There are three coordinating conjunctions in Kala and three correlative conjunctions:
| |
| | |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| ==== coordinating ====
| |
| * '''ma''' - and; also
| |
| :: '''mita ina ma moku'''
| |
| :: <small>dog eat and sleep</small>
| |
| :: ''The dog eats and sleeps.''
| |
| | |
| * '''ua''' - or
| |
| :: '''mita ina ua moku'''
| |
| :: <small>dog eat or sleep</small>
| |
| :: ''The dog eats or sleeps.''
| |
| | |
| * '''ehe''' ('''me''') - but; yet
| |
| :: '''mita ina me mokunke'''
| |
| :: <small>dog eat but sleep-NEG</small>
| |
| :: ''The dog eats but does not sleep.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| | |
| ==== correlative ====
| |
| * '''yema''' - both X and Y
| |
| :: '''mita ina yema empa'''
| |
| :: <small>dog eat both.X.and.Y run</small>
| |
| :: ''The dog both eats and runs.''<br>''The dog is eating and running simultaneously.''
| |
| | |
| * '''ue''' - either X or Y
| |
| :: '''mita ina ue empa'''
| |
| :: <small>dog eat either.X.or.Y run</small>
| |
| :: ''The dog is either eating or running.''
| |
| | |
| * '''uenke''' ('''uek''') - neither X nor Y
| |
| :: '''mita ina uenke empa'''
| |
| :: <small>dog eat neither.X.nor.Y run</small>
| |
| :: ''The dog is neither eating nor running.''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| | |
| === interjections ===
| |
| | |
| The most common interjections in Kala are as follows;
| |
| | |
| * '''kya''' - imperative particle
| |
| | |
| * '''kyo''' - imperative particle
| |
| | |
| * '''kyo'a''' - imperative particle
| |
| | |
| * '''nka''' - emphatic negative
| |
| | |
| * '''ya''' - vocative particle
| |
| | |
| * '''a''' - affirmative
| |
| | |
| * '''aya''' - expresses strong emotions such as surprise ('ah', 'argh') and pain ('ow')
| |
| | |
| === Interjections ===
| |
| | |
| = Word formation =
| |
| | |
| == Compounding ==
| |
| | |
| == Derivation ==
| |
| | |
| === Verbalization ===
| |
| | |
| === Nominalization ===
| |
| | |
| = Basic syntax =
| |
| | |
| The basic structure of a '''Kala''' sentence is:
| |
| | |
| AGENT--PATIENT--VERB (or [[wp:Subject–object–verb|'''SOV''']])
| |
| | |
| The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:
| |
| | |
| * '''mita tlaka anya'''
| |
| : <small>dog man see</small>
| |
| : ''The dog sees the man.''
| |
| | |
| * '''tlaka mita anya'''
| |
| : <small>man dog see</small>
| |
| : ''The man sees the dog.''
| |
| | |
| In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.
| |
| | |
| == Simple sentences ==
| |
| === Intransitive clauses ===
| |
| | |
| Intransitive clauses in Kala minimally consist of a subject followed by an intransitive verb, giving SV word order.
| |
| | |
| * '''nta'i moku'''
| |
| : <small>baby sleep</small>
| |
| : ''The baby sleeps.''
| |
| | |
| * '''mita ina'''
| |
| : <small>dog eat</small>
| |
| : ''The dog eats.''
| |
| | |
| * '''sama nala'''
| |
| : <small>sun shine</small>
| |
| : ''The sun shines.''
| |
| | |
| * '''kamahi ke naha ya'e'''
| |
| : <small>town-DIM O river be.near</small>
| |
| : ''There is a village near the river.''
| |
| | |
| * '''ke apua muyapua'''
| |
| : <small>O song do-PFV</small>
| |
| : ''The song has been sung.''
| |
| | |
| === Transitive clauses ===
| |
| | |
| Clauses with transitive verbs follow a SOV pattern.
| |
| | |
| * '''ona ke matla kuha'''
| |
| : <small>mother O stew cook</small>
| |
| : ''The mother is cooking stew.''
| |
| | |
| * '''tasako ke masala yake'''
| |
| : <small>hunt-AG O deer-INDEF chase</small>
| |
| : ''The hunters are chasing some deer.''
| |
| | |
| * '''kyali ke itohuatla peha'''
| |
| : <small>spear O tree-oak pierce</small>
| |
| : ''The spear pierces the oak tree.''
| |
| | |
| * '''tasako ke mitla hita ma ne masa mata'''
| |
| : <small>hunt-AG O arrow cast and DO deer kill</small>
| |
| : ''The hunter shoots an arrow and kills the deer.''
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| | |
| === Predication ===
| |
| | |
| Nominal predicates are formed with the copula '''a''', using SOV word order. However, more common is the idiomatic omission of the copula and object marker.
| |
| | |
| * '''tsola ke haya a'''
| |
| : <small>fox O animal COP</small>
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| : ''The fox is an animal.'' (grammatical)
| |
| | |
| * '''tsola haya'''
| |
| : <small>fox animal</small>
| |
| : ''The fox is an animal.'' (idiomatic)
| |
| | |
| * '''itlaka ke taya nayo a'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-man O husband 1sg.POSS COP</small>
| |
| : ''This man is my husband.'' (grammatical)
| |
| | |
| * '''itlaka ke taya nayo'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-man O husband 1sg.POSS</small>
| |
| : ''This man is my husband.'' (idiomatic)
| |
| | |
| === Oblique participants ===
| |
| | |
| Kala verb phrases have only a single object slot. As a result, the patient of a ditransitive clause needs to be introduced with the help of a preposition.
| |
| | |
| ==== Dative and benefactive ====
| |
| | |
| Dative participants are marked with the preposition '''nya''' ‘for, by, via’.
| |
| | |
| * '''ntahi ke nyotlomi nya kinti yeta'''
| |
| : <small>child O nut-PAUC BEN squirrel give</small>
| |
| : ''The child gives a few nuts to the squirrel.''
| |
| | |
| * '''ikema nya na tlahi'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-task BEN 1sg be.easy</small>
| |
| : ''This task is easy for me.''
| |
| | |
| Benefactive participants are also marked with the preposition '''nya''' ‘for, by, via’.
| |
| | |
| * '''mekatlo nya ntakum ke tsani yomu'''
| |
| : <small>holy-AG BEN sibling-PL O story recite</small>
| |
| : ''The shaman recites a story for the siblings.''
| |
| | |
| Antibenefactive participants are marked like ordinary datives using '''nya''':
| |
| | |
| * '''tekim nya kamahi namyo tanyaye'''
| |
| : <small>enemy-PL BEN town-DIM 1pl.POSS destroy-PST</small>
| |
| : ''The enemies destroyed our village.''
| |
| | |
| ==== Instrumental ====
| |
| ==== Comitative ====
| |
| ==== Locative ====
| |
| | |
| === Negation ===
| |
| | |
| Negation, both of noun phrases and of clauses, is made with the negating suffix '''-k''' (or '''-nke'''), which affixes to the negated element. Kala utilizes multiple negation, like '''tlok ak''' (<small>AG-NEG COP-NEG</small>) - (there isn't anyone / there is no-one).
| |
| | |
| * '''intahi ke nok onyotlik'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-child O thing-NEG learn-FUT-NEG</small>
| |
| : ''This child will learn nothing.''
| |
| | |
| * '''mita inyak'''
| |
| : <small>dog hunger-NEG</small>
| |
| : ''The dog is not hungry.''
| |
| | |
| The suffix '''-nke''' also marks the [[wp:Abessive_case|abessive]], meaning ''without, or lacking''.
| |
| | |
| * '''ha ke’e hatsanke nya potsi hayo kayoye'''
| |
| : <small>3SG so luck-ABE for wallet 3SG.POSS lose-PST</small>
| |
| : ''He was unlucky enough to lose his wallet.''
| |
| | |
| === Interrogatives ===
| |
| | |
| There are two types of questions: [[Wikipedia:Yes–no_question|Polar]], those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers.
| |
| | |
| ==== Polar questions ====
| |
| | |
| Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.
| |
| | |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''mita ina'''
| |
| : <small>dog eat</small>
| |
| : ''The dog eats.''
| |
| | |
| * '''nta'i moku'''
| |
| : <small>baby sleep</small>
| |
| : ''The baby is sleeping. / The baby sleeps.''
| |
| | |
| * '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye'''
| |
| : <small>2SG O elephant see-PST</small>
| |
| : ''You saw the elephant.''
| |
| | |
| * '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye'''
| |
| : <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST</small>
| |
| : ''The doctor gave you the medicine.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''mita ina ka'''
| |
| : <small>dog eat Q</small>
| |
| : ''Does the dog eat?''
| |
| | |
| * '''nta'i moku ka'''
| |
| : <small>baby sleep Q</small>
| |
| : ''Is the baby sleeping?''
| |
| | |
| * '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye ka'''
| |
| : <small>2SG O elephant see-PST Q</small>
| |
| : ''Did you see the elephant?''
| |
| | |
| * '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye ka'''
| |
| : <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST Q</small>
| |
| : ''Did the doctor give you the medicine?''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| | |
| ==== Content questions ====
| |
| | |
| Questions that give a list of possible answers are formed like polar questions, with the conjunction '''ue''' ‘or’ introducing each alternative (which must appear in the form of a noun phrase).
| |
| | |
| * '''ta ke nkapa ue maya inuue ka'''
| |
| : <small>2SG O beer or.EXCL water drink-VOL Q</small>
| |
| : ''Do you want to drink beer or water?''
| |
| | |
| * '''uala ta ke sinka mataye ue empa ma koma ka'''
| |
| : <small>truly 2sg O lion kill-PST or.EXCL flee CONJ hide Q</small>
| |
| : ''Did you really kill the lion, or did you run away and hide?''
| |
| | |
| Open content questions are most easily formed with the correlatives, such as '''ko''' ‘person’, '''mo''' ‘place’, '''to''' ‘manner’, etc. These correlatives always appear clause-initially:
| |
| | |
| * '''ko ta ka'''
| |
| : <small>person 2sg Q</small>
| |
| : ''Who are you?''
| |
| | |
| * '''itla ka'''
| |
| : <small>this Q</small>
| |
| : ''What is this?''
| |
| | |
| * '''to kihu ka'''
| |
| : <small>manner weather Q</small>
| |
| : ''What's the weather like?''
| |
| | |
| The other type contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| |
| |+ kanyo
| |
| |-
| |
| !
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! gloss
| |
| ! English
| |
| |-
| |
| ! object
| |
| | '''ke mita ina ka''' || <small>O dog eat Q</small> || ''What does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! person
| |
| | '''ko ina ka''' || <small>person eat Q</small> || ''Who eats?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! possession
| |
| | '''koyo mita ina ka''' || <small>person-POSS dog eat Q</small> || ''Whose dog eats?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! manner
| |
| | '''to mita ina ka''' || <small>manner dog eat Q</small> || ''How does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! place
| |
| | '''mo mita ina ka''' || <small>place dog eat Q</small> || ''Where does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! reason
| |
| | '''nye mita ina ka''' || <small>reason dog eat Q</small> || ''Why does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! time
| |
| | '''ama mita ina ka''' || <small>time dog eat Q</small> || ''When does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! amount
| |
| | '''uku mita ina ka''' || <small>amount dog eat Q</small> || ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! which
| |
| | '''ula mita ina ka''' || <small>any dog eat Q</small> || ''Which dog eats?''
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
|
| === Passives === | | == negatives == |
| === Reflexives and reciprocals ===
| |
| == Complex sentences ==
| |
| === Clause coordination ===
| |
| === Coordination of noun phrases ===
| |
| === Complement clauses ===
| |
| === Relative clauses ===
| |
| === Adverbial clauses ===
| |
|
| |
|
| = Serial verb construction = | | == questions == |
| == Sequential events ==
| |
| === Lexicalized sequential serials ===
| |
| == Grammatical use of serial verbs ==
| |
| === Causatives ===
| |
| === Comparison ===
| |
| === Motion verbs ===
| |
| ==== Direction and deixis ====
| |
| ==== Manner of motion ====
| |
| ==== Source and target ====
| |
| === Posture and orientation ===
| |
| === Aspect ===
| |
