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| akana.conlang.org/wiki/Ronc_Tyu
| | = introduction = |
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| = Introduction = | | = phonology = |
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| Kala is a personal [[Wikipedia:Constructed_language|conlang]] (actually more of an [[Wikipedia:Artistic_language#Personal_languages|artlang]]), based on my aesthetic preferences, not attached to any [[Wikipedia:Worldbuilding|conworld]] or conculture. This language draws on natlangs (natural language), other conlangs, and of course imagination. Kala was started in late 2009. The phonemic inventory is based on Classical Nahuatl while the syllable structure and vowels are based on the strict (C)V structure of Japanese, and the presence of prenasalized stops is influenced by Bantu languages. Kala’s grammar was initially based on Japanese but has changed based on influence from several natural and constructed languages. Many – if not most – of Kala lexemes are derived or inspired by natural languages. A few have been taken from previous projects or constructed languages such as '''Ajara''' (a cipherlang from my youth), '''[[Qatama]]''' (a conlang that I abandoned several years ago).
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| == Characteristics ==
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| Kala is a context-oriented language. In most cases, the more important elements of a phrase are clustered toward the end of the sentence (e.g. verbs and their modifiers). The less important an element is to the understanding of a sentence, the more likely it is to be dropped. Consequently, many Kala sentences end-up consisting solely of a verb (or adjectival verb). More so in conversation than in written Kala, these short phrases are grammatically correct and natural. Here are some examples:
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| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><b>므야 가</b></big></font> - '''muya ka''' - <small>do Q</small> - ''(What are you) doing?''
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| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><b>이나</b></big></font> - '''ina''' - <small>eat</small> - ''(I am) eating.''
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| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><b>다마저</b></big></font> - '''tamatse''' - <small>good-seem</small> - ''(That looks) good.''
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| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><b>유하 가</b></big></font> - '''ueha ka''' - <small>want Q</small> - ''(Do you) want (some)?''
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| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><b>냐삭</b></big></font> - '''nyasak''' - <small>thank-NEG</small> - ''No, thank (you).''
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| Notice that none of the above contain any pronouns, or nouns. Any contextually understood elements may be omitted unless indispensable.
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| == Types of words ==
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| Kala has two parts of speech. Nouns and verbs are [[wp:Content_word|content words]], while particles (and others) tend to be only [[wp:Function_word|functional]]. Many content words can be used as both nouns and verbs. The best, and most common example would be '''ina''' (food; to eat).
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| * '''na ina''' - <small>1SG eat</small> - ''I eat.''
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| ** '''na ke ina anya''' - <small>1SG O food see</small> - ''I see the food.''
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| == Borrowing ==
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| Kala borrows extensively from various natural languages. This is a very small sample of borrowings:
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| ''See also: [[Kala/etymology|etymology]]''
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| * '''pato''' – ''duck (Anatidae)''; from Spanish [[Wiktionary:pato|''pato'']]
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| * '''kala''' – ''to speak, talk, converse''; from Arabic [[Wiktionary:تكلم|''takallama'']]
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| * '''myonta''' – ''to allow, permit''; from Finnish [[Wiktionary:myöntää|''myöntää'']]
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| * '''na''' – ''I, me''; from Arabic [[Wiktionary:أنا|''ʾanā'']]
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| * '''tsenka''' – ''orange''; from Chinese [[Wiktionary:橙|''chéng'']]
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| * '''uasi''' – ''to take, get, acquire''; from Lakota [[Wiktionary:wasi'chu|''wasichu'']]
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| * '''a''' – ''to be, exist, yes''; from Japanese [[Wiktionary:ある|''aru'']]
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| = Phonology =
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| == Consonants ==
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| | == consonants == |
| * Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes. | | * Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes. |
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| |colspan=2|t~d ('''t''') | | |colspan=2|t~d ('''t''') |
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| | k~g ('''g''') | | | k~g ('''k''') |
| | ʔ (''' ' ''') | | | ʔ (''' ' ''') |
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| |} | | |} |
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| | The [[wp:Glottal_stop|glottal stop]] is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs. |
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| * '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/ | | * '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/ |
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| * '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/ | | * '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/ |
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| <small>Note: Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short.</small>
| | === free variation === |
| | Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of [[wp:Free_variation|allophonic variation]]. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed. |
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| | === Sound Changes === |
| | The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/. The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, '''sama''' (''sun; star; solar'') is /ˈʃaːma/ where '''sitsa''' (''heat; hot'') is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and '''tsisi''' (''embroider; embroidery'') is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/. |
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| == Vowels == | | == vowels == |
| {| class="wikitable" | | {| class="wikitable" |
| |+Vowels | | |+Vowels |
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| |-align=center | | |-align=center |
| !'''Close''' | | !'''Close''' |
| |{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~u:}} '''(u)''' | | |{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~ʊ}} '''(u)''' |
| |-align=center | | |-align=center |
| !'''Mid''' | | !'''Mid''' |
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| |-align=center | | |-align=center |
| !'''Open''' | | !'''Open''' |
| |colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~a:}} '''(a)''' | | |colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~ɑ}} '''(a)''' |
| |} | | |} |
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| '''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug'). | | '''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug'). |
| === Diphthongs ===
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| Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] and [aʊ̯], but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa], [we], [ja], [je], and [jo]. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] and [jaʊ̯] are very rare but should be noted as possible. | | === diphthongs === |
| | Phonetically, '''Kala''' has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] '''ai''' and [aʊ̯] '''ao''', but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] '''ua''', [we] '''ue''', [ja] '''ya''', [je] '''ye''', and [jo] '''yo'''. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] '''uai''' and [jaʊ̯] '''yao''' are very rare but should be noted as possible. |
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| == Phonotactics == | | == phonotactics == |
| | The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) '''(N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i)''' where '''(N)''' indicates nasalization, and '''u''' and '''y''' indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern. |
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| '''Kala''' words are typically made up of [[wp:Syllable#Open_and_closed|open syllables]] of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most words having syllables exclusively of this type. There is a limited set of syllables allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese.
| | There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as '''tata''' for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms). |
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| * /l/ cannot occur word initially (except in loan words and [[wp:Toponymy|toponyms]]).
| | When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by '''–u''', which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be '''tsuala’u''' meaning ''“to become prosperous”'', from '''tsuala''' ''“prosper; be prosperous”'' and the suffix '''–la''' meaning ''“become; change into”'', used to indicate the mutative. |
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| === Syllables === | | === gemination === |
| | Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. '''naka''' (''woman'') can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas '''nakkan''' (''chieftess'') can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination. |
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| | === syllables === |
| | Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings '''–m''' (indicating general plural, deriving from '''ma''', meaning ''“and, also”''), '''-n''' (indicating accusative case, deriving from '''no''', meaning ''“thing, object”''), and '''–k''' (indicating negative mood, deriving from '''nke''', meaning ''“no, not”''). |
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| | === syllable chart === |
| {| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;" | | {| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;" |
| |+the 136 basic Kala syllables | | |+the 136 basic Kala syllables |
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| |} | | |} |
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| <small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word.</small> | | <small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The '''A-O''' columns are called '''''mpalo''''' and are the most common, the '''U-YO''' are called '''''puhyo''''', the '''AI-YAO'''/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as '''''paihyao'''''.</small> |
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| == Stress == | | === collating order === |
| [[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV).
| | The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the [[Kala/writing#Naua|'''Naua''']] script. |
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| = Orthography =
| | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;" |
| * Kala conscripts are many and varied. Rather than multiple pages explaining each of them, [[Kala/writing|'''this''']] page serves as a working list with a consistent example across each script.
| | ! Consonants |
| | | | '''p''' |
| = Types of words =
| | | '''t''' |
| | | | '''k''' |
| == Content words ==
| | | '''m''' |
| | | | '''n''' |
| === Nouns ===
| | | '''s''' |
| | | | '''h''' |
| Nouns in '''Kala''' are inflected only for number. Other relevant distinctions are animacy and possession, but these are not marked on the noun itself. Animacy plays a role both for pronoun choice and for the validity of some syntactic constructions.
| | | '''ts''' |
| | | | '''tl''' |
| ==== Number Marking ====
| | | '''l''' |
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| * Most nouns in '''Kala''' distinguish singular and plural number. There are several different “regular” ways to form the plural, which are to a certain degree predictable from the phonological shape of the singular form. Nouns can be marked [[wp:Plural|plural]] ('''PL''') by '''-m''' (or '''-lo''' if the final syllable contains /m/ or /p/, or, if the word begins with a vowel).
| | ! Vowels |
| ** In general the plural suffix is not used when the plurality of the noun is clear from context. For example, while the English sentence "there are three dogs" would use the plural "dogs" instead of the singular "dog", the '''Kala''' sentence '''mita ha'o a''' "dog three exist" keeps the word '''mita''' "dog" in its unmarked form, as the numeral makes the plural marker redundant.
| | | '''a''' |
| ** The collective plural is marked by '''tli'''-, derived from '''tatli''', meaning ‘group; collection; gathering’. It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the [[wp:Collective_noun|collective]] plural ('''COL''').
| | | '''e''' |
| ::
| | | '''i''' |
| * '''ata''' - name > '''atalo''' - names
| | | '''o''' |
| * '''mita''' – dog > '''mitam''' - dogs > '''tlimita''' – a pack of dogs
| | | '''u''' |
| * '''yama''' – mountain > '''tliyamalo''' – mountain ranges
| | | '''ua''' |
| * '''tsaka''' – house > '''tlitsaka''' – neighborhood
| | | '''ue''' |
| * '''puku''' – clothing > '''tlipuku''' – wardrobe
| | | '''ya''' |
| | | | '''ye''' |
| ==== Pronouns ====
| | | '''yo''' |
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| '''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. There is a special pronoun '''na'am''' which is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| Personal pronouns:
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| * '''na''' - 1st person
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| * '''ta''' - 2nd person
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| * '''ha''' - 3rd person
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| * '''tla''' - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for [[wp:Animacy|inanimate]] nouns)
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| {{col-break}}
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| Modifiers:
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| * '''-m''' - plural
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| * '''-nku''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_pronoun|reciprocal]] (only attaches to plural pronouns)
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| * '''e-''' - patient
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| * '''-i''' - reflexive
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| * '''-yo''' - possessive
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| {{col-break}}
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| Other pronouns include:
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| * '''tlokua''' - everyone, everybody
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| * '''kola''' - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
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| * '''tlok''' - no one, nobody
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| * '''nokua''' - everything
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| * '''nola''' - something; whatever, anything
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| * '''nok''' - nothing
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| {{col-end}}
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;" | |
| |+ nkalo
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| |-
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| !
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| ! Agent
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| ! Patient
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| ! Reflexive
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| ! Possessive
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| ! Reciprocal | |
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| ! 1sg
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| | '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''na'i''' || '''nayo''' || '''-''' | |
| |-
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| ! 2sg
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| | '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''ta'i''' || '''tayo''' || '''-''' | |
| |- | |
| ! 3sg | |
| | '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''ha'i''' || '''hayo''' || '''-''' | |
| |-
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| ! 4sg
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| | '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tla'i''' || '''tlayo''' || '''-''' | |
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| ! 1pl<br>1pl exclusive
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| | '''nam'''<br>'''na'am''' || '''enam'''<br>'''ena'am''' || '''nami'''<br>'''na'ami''' || '''namyo'''<br>'''na'amyo''' || '''nanku'''<br>'''na'anku''' | |
| |-
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| ! 2pl
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| | '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tami''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tanku''' | |
| |-
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| ! 3pl
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| | '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kami''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kanku''' | |
| |- | |
| ! 4pl
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| | '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlanku'''
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| |} | | |} |
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| === Verbs ===
| | Based on this order, '''ma''' would come before '''ha''', etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. '''mpa''' comes after '''pyo''' but before '''ta'''. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]]. This order can be vocalized as ''“pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”'', this aides in memorization and organization. |
| '''Kala''' relies on analytic serial verb constructions, and can therefore get by with very little verbal morphology. Each verb has at most three forms: the [[wp:Dynamic_verb|''active'']], the [[wp:Stative_verb|''stative'']], and the [[wp:Attributive_verb|''attributive'']]. Passivity is marked on the subject thus verbs are unmarked and must be analyzed based on surrounding morphology.
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| ==== Passivity ====
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| The passive voice is formed by prefixing '''e'''- to pronouns, and the object marker '''ke''' for nouns, or '''nya''' ‘for, by, via’.
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| * '''ha yatsi'''
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| : <small>3sg bite</small>
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| : ''He bites.''
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| * '''eha yatsi'''
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| : <small>P.3sg bite</small>
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| : ''He is bitten.''
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| * '''ha yapo'''
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| : <small>3sg build</small>
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| : ''He builds.''
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| * '''etla nya ha yapo'''
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| : <small>P.4sg by 3sg build</small>
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| : ''It is built by him.''
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| === Numbers ===
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| == Function words ==
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| === Particles ===
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| === Conjunctions ===
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| === Interjections ===
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| = Word formation =
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| == Compounding ==
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| == Derivation ==
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| === Verbalization ===
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| === Nominalization ===
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| = Basic syntax =
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| The basic structure of a '''Kala''' sentence is:
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| AGENT--PATIENT--VERB (or [[wp:Subject–object–verb|'''SOV''']])
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| The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:
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| * '''mita tlaka anya'''
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| : <small>dog man see</small>
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| : ''The dog sees the man.''
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| * '''tlaka mita anya'''
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| : <small>man dog see</small>
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| : ''The man sees the dog.''
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| In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.
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| == Simple sentences ==
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| === Intransitive clauses ===
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| Intransitive clauses in Kala minimally consist of a subject followed by an intransitive verb, giving SV word order.
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| * '''nta'i moku'''
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| : <small>baby sleep</small>
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| : ''The baby sleeps.''
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| * '''mita ina'''
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| : <small>dog eat</small>
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| : ''The dog eats.''
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| * '''sama nala'''
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| : <small>sun shine</small>
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| : ''The sun shines.''
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| * '''kamahi ke naha ya'e'''
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| : <small>town-DIM O river be.near</small>
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| : ''There is a village near the river.''
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| * '''ke apua muyapua'''
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| : <small>O song do-PFV</small>
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| : ''The song has been sung.''
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| === Transitive clauses ===
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| Clauses with transitive verbs follow a SOV pattern.
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| * '''ona ke matla kuha'''
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| : <small>mother O stew cook</small>
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| : ''The mother is cooking stew.''
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| * '''tasako ke masala yake'''
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| : <small>hunt-AG O deer-INDEF chase</small>
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| : ''The hunters are chasing some deer.''
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| * '''kyali ke itohuatla peha'''
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| : <small>spear O tree-oak pierce</small>
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| : ''The spear pierces the oak tree.''
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| * '''tasako ke mitla hita ma ne masa mata'''
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| : <small>hunt-AG O arrow cast and DO deer kill</small>
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| : ''The hunter shoots an arrow and kills the deer.''
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| === Predication ===
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| Nominal predicates are formed with the copula '''a''', using SOV word order. However, more common is the idiomatic omission of the copula and object marker.
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| * '''tsola ke haya a'''
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| : <small>fox O animal COP</small>
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| : ''The fox is an animal.'' (grammatical)
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| * '''tsola haya'''
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| : <small>fox animal</small>
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| : ''The fox is an animal.'' (idiomatic)
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| * '''itlaka ke taya nayo a'''
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| : <small>PROX-man O husband 1sg.POSS COP</small>
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| : ''This man is my husband.'' (grammatical)
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| * '''itlaka ke taya nayo'''
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| : <small>PROX-man O husband 1sg.POSS</small>
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| : ''This man is my husband.'' (idiomatic)
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| === Oblique participants ===
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| Kala verb phrases have only a single object slot. As a result, the patient of a ditransitive clause needs to be introduced with the help of a preposition.
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| ==== Dative and benefactive ====
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| | |
| Dative participants are marked with the preposition '''nya''' ‘for, by, via’.
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| | |
| * '''ntahi ke nyotlomi nya kinti yeta'''
| |
| : <small>child O nut-PAUC BEN squirrel give</small>
| |
| : ''The child gives a few nuts to the squirrel.''
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| | |
| * '''ikema nya na tlahi'''
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| : <small>PROX-task BEN 1sg be.easy</small>
| |
| : ''This task is easy for me.''
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|
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| Benefactive participants are also marked with the preposition '''nya''' ‘for, by, via’.
| | == stress == |
| | [[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So; |
|
| |
|
| * '''mekatlo nya ntakum ke tsani yomu''' | | * '''<u>ma</u>sa''' - /ˈmaːsa/ → '''ma<u>sa</u>ko''' - /maːˈsako/ |
| : <small>holy-AG BEN sibling-PL O story recite</small>
| | * '''tli<u>ya</u>ma''' - /tɬiːˈjama/ → '''tliya<u>ma</u>lo''' - /tɬiːjaˈmalo/ |
| : ''The shaman recites a story for the siblings.''
| | * '''kam''' - /kaːm/ → '''<u>ka</u>myo''' - /ˈkaːmʲo/ |
| | * '''empa<u>ha</u>pak''' - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → '''empaha<u>pa</u>yek''' - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/ |
|
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| Antibenefactive participants are marked like ordinary datives using '''nya''':
| | = orthography = |
|
| |
|
| * '''tekim nya kamahi namyo tanyaye'''
| | = morphology = |
| : <small>enemy-PL BEN town-DIM 1pl.POSS destroy-PST</small>
| |
| : ''The enemies destroyed our village.''
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|
| |
|
| ==== Instrumental ==== | | == nouns == |
| ==== Comitative ====
| |
| ==== Locative ====
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|
| |
|
| === Negation === | | === pronouns === |
|
| |
|
| Negation, both of noun phrases and of clauses, is made with the negating suffix '''-k''' (or '''-nke'''), which affixes to the negated element. Kala utilizes multiple negation, like '''tlok ak''' (<small>AG-NEG COP-NEG</small>) - (there isn't anyone / there is no-one).
| | === determiners and demonstratives === |
|
| |
|
| * '''intahi ke nok onyotlik'''
| | == verbs == |
| : <small>PROX-child O thing-NEG learn-FUT-NEG</small>
| |
| : ''This child will learn nothing.''
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|
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|
| * '''mita inyak'''
| | === passive === |
| : <small>dog hunger-NEG</small>
| |
| : ''The dog is not hungry.''
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|
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|
| The suffix '''-nke''' also marks the [[wp:Abessive_case|abessive]], meaning ''without, or lacking''.
| | === causative === |
|
| |
|
| * '''ha ke’e hatsanke nya potsi hayo kayoye'''
| | === inceptive === |
| : <small>3SG so luck-ABE for wallet 3SG.POSS lose-PST</small>
| |
| : ''He was unlucky enough to lose his wallet.''
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|
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|
| === Interrogatives === | | === infinitive === |
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|
| There are two types of questions: [[Wikipedia:Yes–no_question|Polar]], those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers.
| | === copula === |
|
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|
| ==== Polar questions ==== | | === stative verbs === |
|
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| Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.
| | = derivational morphology = |
|
| |
|
| {{col-begin}}
| | == nominalizers == |
| {{col-break}}
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| * '''mita ina'''
| |
| : <small>dog eat</small>
| |
| : ''The dog eats.''
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|
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|
| * '''nta'i moku'''
| | == reduplication == |
| : <small>baby sleep</small>
| |
| : ''The baby is sleeping. / The baby sleeps.''
| |
|
| |
|
| * '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye'''
| | == verbalizers == |
| : <small>2SG O elephant see-PST</small>
| |
| : ''You saw the elephant.''
| |
|
| |
|
| * '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye'''
| | = syntax = |
| : <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST</small>
| |
| : ''The doctor gave you the medicine.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''mita ina ka'''
| |
| : <small>dog eat Q</small>
| |
| : ''Does the dog eat?''
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|
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|
| * '''nta'i moku ka'''
| | == word order == |
| : <small>baby sleep Q</small>
| |
| : ''Is the baby sleeping?''
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|
| |
|
| * '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye ka'''
| | == case usage == |
| : <small>2SG O elephant see-PST Q</small>
| |
| : ''Did you see the elephant?''
| |
|
| |
|
| * '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye ka'''
| | == noun phrases == |
| : <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST Q</small>
| |
| : ''Did the doctor give you the medicine?''
| |
| {{col-end}}
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|
| ==== Content questions ==== | | == numbers == |
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| Questions that give a list of possible answers are formed like polar questions, with the conjunction '''ue''' ‘or’ introducing each alternative (which must appear in the form of a noun phrase).
| | == comparisons == |
|
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|
| * '''ta ke nkapa ue maya inuue ka'''
| | == prepositions == |
| : <small>2SG O beer or.EXCL water drink-VOL Q</small>
| |
| : ''Do you want to drink beer or water?''
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|
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|
| * '''uala ta ke sinka mataye ue empa ma koma ka'''
| | == tense usage == |
| : <small>truly 2sg O lion kill-PST or.EXCL flee CONJ hide Q</small>
| |
| : ''Did you really kill the lion, or did you run away and hide?''
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|
| Open content questions are most easily formed with the correlatives, such as '''ko''' ‘person’, '''mo''' ‘place’, '''to''' ‘manner’, etc. These correlatives always appear clause-initially:
| | == moods == |
|
| |
|
| * '''ko ta ka'''
| | == aspect == |
| : <small>person 2sg Q</small>
| |
| : ''Who are you?''
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|
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| * '''itla ka'''
| | == conditionals == |
| : <small>this Q</small>
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| : ''What is this?''
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| * '''to kihu ka'''
| | == subordinate clauses == |
| : <small>manner weather Q</small>
| |
| : ''What's the weather like?''
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| === Passives === | | == negatives == |
| === Reflexives and reciprocals ===
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| == Complex sentences ==
| |
| === Clause coordination ===
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| === Coordination of noun phrases ===
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| === Complement clauses ===
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| === Relative clauses ===
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| === Adverbial clauses ===
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| = Serial verb construction = | | == questions == |
| == Sequential events ==
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| === Lexicalized sequential serials ===
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| == Grammatical use of serial verbs ==
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| === Causatives ===
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| === Comparison ===
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| === Motion verbs ===
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| ==== Direction and deixis ====
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| ==== Manner of motion ====
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| ==== Source and target ====
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| === Posture and orientation ===
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| === Aspect ===
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introduction
phonology
consonants
Consonants
|
|
Labial
|
Alveolar
|
Palatal
|
Velar
|
Glottal
|
| Nasal
|
m (m)
|
n (n)
|
ɲ (ny)
|
|
|
| Plosive
|
p~b (p)
|
t~d (t)
|
|
k~g (k)
|
ʔ ( ' )
|
| Affricate
|
|
ts~t͡ʃ (ts) |
t͡ɬ~tl (tl)
|
|
|
|
| Continuant
|
|
s~ʃ (s) |
l~ɾ (l)
|
|
|
h~ɦ (h)
|
| Semivowel
|
|
|
j (y)
|
w (u)
|
|
The glottal stop is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.
- Prenasalized: /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
- Labialized:/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
- Palatalized: /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/
free variation
Because of its small phoneme inventory, Kala allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.
Sound Changes
The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/. The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, sama (sun; star; solar) is /ˈʃaːma/ where sitsa (heat; hot) is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and tsisi (embroider; embroidery) is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.
vowels
Vowels
|
|
Front
|
Back
|
| Close
|
i~ɪ (i) |
u~ʊ (u)
|
| Mid
|
e~ɛ (e) |
o~o: (o)
|
| Open
|
a~ɑ (a)
|
Kala has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. tsunka [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
diphthongs
Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] ai and [aʊ̯] ao, but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] ua, [we] ue, [ja] ya, [je] ye, and [jo] yo. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] uai and [jaʊ̯] yao are very rare but should be noted as possible.
phonotactics
The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) (N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i) where (N) indicates nasalization, and u and y indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.
There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by Kala phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as tata for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).
When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by –u, which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be tsuala’u meaning “to become prosperous”, from tsuala “prosper; be prosperous” and the suffix –la meaning “become; change into”, used to indicate the mutative.
gemination
Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. naka (woman) can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas nakkan (chieftess) can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.
syllables
Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings –m (indicating general plural, deriving from ma, meaning “and, also”), -n (indicating accusative case, deriving from no, meaning “thing, object”), and –k (indicating negative mood, deriving from nke, meaning “no, not”).
syllable chart
the 136 basic Kala syllables
|
|
a
|
e
|
i
|
o
|
u
|
ua
|
ue
|
ya
|
ye
|
yo
|
ai
|
ao
|
uai
|
yao
|
| p
|
(m)pa
|
(m)pe
|
(m)pi
|
(m)po
|
(m)pu
|
pua
|
pue
|
pya
|
pye
|
pyo
|
pai
|
pao
|
puai
|
pyao
|
| t
|
(n)ta
|
(n)te
|
(n)ti
|
(n)to
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
tai
|
tao
|
|
|
| k
|
(n)ka
|
(n)ke
|
(n)ki
|
(n)ko
|
(n)ku
|
kua
|
kue
|
kya
|
kye
|
kyo
|
kai
|
kao
|
kuai
|
kyao
|
| m
|
ma
|
me
|
mi
|
mo
|
mu
|
mua
|
mue
|
mya
|
mye
|
myo
|
mai
|
mao
|
muai
|
myao
|
| n
|
na
|
ne
|
ni
|
no
|
nu
|
nua
|
nue
|
nya
|
nye
|
nyo
|
nai
|
nao
|
nuai
|
nyao
|
| s
|
sa
|
se
|
si
|
so
|
su
|
sua
|
sue
|
|
|
|
sai
|
sao
|
suai
|
|
| h
|
ha
|
he
|
hi
|
ho
|
hu
|
hua
|
hue
|
hya
|
hye
|
hyo
|
hai
|
hao
|
huai
|
hyao
|
| ts
|
tsa
|
tse
|
tsi
|
tso
|
tsu
|
tsua
|
tsue
|
|
|
|
tsai
|
tsao
|
tsuai
|
|
| tl
|
tla
|
tle
|
tli
|
tlo
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
tlai
|
tlao
|
|
|
| l
|
la
|
le
|
li
|
lo
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
lai
|
lao
|
|
|
| -
|
a
|
e
|
i
|
o
|
u
|
ua
|
ue
|
ya
|
ye
|
yo
|
ai
|
ao
|
uai
|
yao
|
Syllables such as nsa, ntla, or ntsa can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The A-O columns are called mpalo and are the most common, the U-YO are called puhyo, the AI-YAO/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as paihyao.
collating order
The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the Naua script.
| Consonants
|
p
|
t
|
k
|
m
|
n
|
s
|
h
|
ts
|
tl
|
l
|
| Vowels
|
a
|
e
|
i
|
o
|
u
|
ua
|
ue
|
ya
|
ye
|
yo
|
Based on this order, ma would come before ha, etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. mpa comes after pyo but before ta. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the lexicon. This order can be vocalized as “pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”, this aides in memorization and organization.
stress
Stress generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is de facto initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;
- masa - /ˈmaːsa/ → masako - /maːˈsako/
- tliyama - /tɬiːˈjama/ → tliyamalo - /tɬiːjaˈmalo/
- kam - /kaːm/ → kamyo - /ˈkaːmʲo/
- empahapak - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → empahapayek - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/
orthography
morphology
nouns
pronouns
determiners and demonstratives
verbs
passive
causative
inceptive
infinitive
copula
stative verbs
derivational morphology
nominalizers
reduplication
verbalizers
syntax
word order
case usage
noun phrases
numbers
comparisons
prepositions
tense usage
moods
aspect
conditionals
subordinate clauses
negatives
questions
