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= introduction =
= introduction =
Kala is a personal [[Wikipedia:Constructed_language|conlang]] (actually more of an [[Wikipedia:Artistic_language#Personal_languages|artlang]]), not attached to any [[Wikipedia:Worldbuilding|conworld]] or conculture.
== characteristics ==
Kala is a context-oriented language. In most cases, the more important elements of a phrase are clustered toward the end of the sentence (e.g. verbs and their modifiers). The less important an element is to the understanding of a sentence, the more likely it is to be dropped. Consequently, many Kala sentences end-up consisting solely of a verb (or adjectival verb). More so in conversation than in written Kala, these short phrases are grammatically correct and natural. Here are some examples:
* '''muya ka''' - <small>do Q</small> - ''(What are you) doing?''
* '''ina''' - <small>eat</small> - ''(I am) eating.''
* '''tamatse''' - <small>good-seem</small> - ''(That looks) good.''
* '''ueha ka''' - <small>want Q</small> - ''(Do you) want (some)?''
* '''nyasak''' - <small>thank-NEG</small> - ''No, thank (you).''
Notice that none of the above contain any pronouns, or nouns. Any contextually understood elements may be omitted unless indispensable.
== parts of speech ==
Kala has two parts of speech. Nouns and verbs are [[wp:Content_word|content words]], while particles (and others) tend to be only [[wp:Function_word|functional]].  Many content words can be used as both nouns and verbs. The best, and most common example would be '''ina''' (food; to eat).
* '''na ina''' - <small>1SG eat</small> - ''I eat.''
** '''na ke ina anya''' - <small>1SG O food see</small> - ''I see the food.''
== borrowing ==
Kala borrows extensively from various natural languages. This is a very small sample of borrowings:
''See also: [[Kala/etymology|etymology]]''
* '''kala''' – ''to speak, talk, converse''; from Arabic [[Wiktionary:تكلم|''takallama'']]
* '''na''' – ''I, me''; from Arabic [[Wiktionary:أنا|''ʾanā'']]
* '''pato''' – ''duck (Anatidae)''; from Spanish [[Wiktionary:pato|''pato'']]
* '''tsenka''' – ''orange''; from Chinese [[Wiktionary:橙|''chéng'']]
* '''uasi''' – ''to take, get, acquire''; from Lakota [[Wiktionary:wasi'chu|''wasichu'']]
* '''myonta''' – ''to allow, permit''; from Finnish [[Wiktionary:myöntää|''myöntää'']]
* '''a''' – ''to be, exist, yes''; from Japanese [[Wiktionary:ある|''aru'']]
== glossing ==
Glossing abbreviations.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[wp:first person|1]] - '''first person'''
* [[wp:second person|2]] - '''second person'''
* [[wp:third person|3]] - '''third person'''
* [[wp:fourth person|4]] - '''fourth person'''
* [[wp:agentive|ag]] - '''agentive'''
* [[wp:attemptive|att]] - '''attemptive'''
* [[wp:augmentative|aug]] - '''augmentative'''
* [[wp:benefactive|ben]] - '''benefactive'''
* [[wp:causative|caus]] - '''causative'''
* [[wp:Singulative_number|col]] - '''collective'''
* [[wp:comparative|comp]] - '''comparative'''
* [[wp:diminutive|dim]] - '''diminutive'''
* [[wp:Deixis|dist]] - '''distal'''
{{col-break}}
* [[wp:dubitative|dub]] - '''dubitative'''
* [[wp:Clusivity|excl]] - '''exclusive'''
* [[wp:Elative_(gradation)|ext]] - '''extreme'''
* [[wp:Grammatical_gender|fem]] - '''feminine'''
* [[wp:future_tense|fut]] - '''future'''
* [[wp:genitive|gen]] - '''genitive'''
* [[wp:hortative|hort]] - '''hortative'''
* [[wp:Imperative_mood|imp]] - '''imperative'''
* [[wp:inchoative|inch]] - '''inchoative'''
* [[wp:instrumental_case|instr]] - '''instrumental'''
* [[wp:intensive|int]] - '''intensive'''
{{col-break}}
* [[wp:interjection|interj]] - '''interjection'''
* [[wp:locative|loc]] - '''locative'''
* [[wp:Grammatical_gender|masc]] - '''masculine'''
* [[wp:Deixis|med]] - '''medial'''
* [[wp:necessitative|nec]] - '''necessitative'''
* [[wp:Affirmative_and_negative|neg]] - '''negative'''
* [[wp:Object_(grammar)|o]] - '''object'''
* [[wp:Patient_(grammar)|p]] - '''patient'''
* [[wp:permissive_mood|perm]] - '''permissive'''
* [[wp:perfective|pfv]] - '''perfective'''
* [[wp:plural|pl]] - '''plural'''
* [[wp:possessive|poss]] - '''possessive'''
{{col-break}}
* [[wp:Irrealis_mood#Precative|prec]] - '''precative'''
* [[wp:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|prog]] - '''progressive'''
* [[wp:Deixis|prox]] - '''proximal'''
* [[wp:past_tense|pst]] - '''past'''
* [[wp:Reciprocal_(grammar)|recp]] - '''reciprocal'''
* [[wp:Reflexive_pronoun|refl]] - '''reflexive'''
* sb - '''somebody'''
* [[wp:Grammatical_number|sg]] - '''singular'''
* sth - '''something'''
* sug - '''suggestive'''
* [[wp:vocative|voc]] - '''vocative'''
* [[wp:Volitive_modality|vol]] - '''volitive'''
{{col-end}}


= phonology =
= phonology =


=== consonants ===
== consonants ==
 
* Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
* Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.


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|colspan=2|t~d ('''t''')
|colspan=2|t~d ('''t''')
|
|
| k~g ('''g''')
| k~g ('''k''')
| ʔ (''' ' ''')
| ʔ (''' ' ''')
|-
|-
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|
|
|}
|}
The [[wp:Glottal_stop|glottal stop]] is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.


* '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
* '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
Line 149: Line 57:
* '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/
* '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/


<small>Note: Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short.</small>
=== free variation ===
Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of [[wp:Free_variation|allophonic variation]]. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.
 
=== Sound Changes ===
The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/.  The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, '''sama''' (''sun; star; solar'') is /ˈʃaːma/ where '''sitsa''' (''heat; hot'') is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and '''tsisi''' (''embroider; embroidery'') is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.


=== vowels ===
== vowels ==
{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable"  
|+Vowels
|+Vowels
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|-align=center
|-align=center
!'''Close'''
!'''Close'''
|{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~u:}} '''(u)'''
|{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~ʊ}} '''(u)'''
|-align=center
|-align=center
!'''Mid'''
!'''Mid'''
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|-align=center
|-align=center
!'''Open'''  
!'''Open'''  
|colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~a:}} '''(a)'''
|colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~ɑ}} '''(a)'''
|}
|}


'''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
'''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').


==== diphthongs ====
=== diphthongs ===
 
Phonetically, '''Kala''' has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] '''ai''' and [aʊ̯] '''ao''', but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] '''ua''', [we] '''ue''', [ja] '''ya''', [je] '''ye''', and [jo] '''yo'''. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] '''uai''' and [jaʊ̯] '''yao''' are very rare but should be noted as possible.
Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] and [aʊ̯], but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa], [we], [ja], [je], and [jo]. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] and [jaʊ̯] are very rare but should be noted as possible.
 
=== syllable structure ===
 
'''Kala''' words are typically made up of [[wp:Syllable#Open_and_closed|open syllables]] of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most words having syllables exclusively of this type. There is a limited set of syllables allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. They are listed here: [[:File:Kalasyl.png|syllable chart]], or [[Kala/syllables|here]].
 
* /l/ cannot occur word initially (except in loan words and [[wp:Toponymy|toponyms]]).
 
=== stress ===


[[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV).
== phonotactics ==
The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) '''(N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i)''' where '''(N)''' indicates nasalization, and '''u''' and '''y''' indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.


= orthography =
There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as '''tata''' for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).


* Kala conscripts are many and varied. Rather than multiple pages explaining each of them, [[Kala/writing|'''this''']] page serves as a working list with a consistent example across each script.
When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by '''–u''', which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be '''tsuala’u''' meaning ''“to become prosperous”'', from '''tsuala''' ''“prosper; be prosperous”'' and the suffix '''–la''' meaning ''“become; change into”'', used to indicate the mutative.


= word order =
=== gemination ===
Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. '''naka''' (''woman'') can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas '''nakkan''' (''chieftess'') can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.


The basic structure of a '''Kala''' sentence is:
=== syllables ===
Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings '''–m''' (indicating general plural, deriving from '''ma''', meaning ''“and, also”''), '''-n''' (indicating accusative case, deriving from '''no''', meaning ''“thing, object”''), and '''–k''' (indicating negative mood, deriving from '''nke''', meaning ''“no, not”'').


AGENT--PATIENT--VERB (or [[wp:Subject–object–verb|'''SOV''']])
=== syllable chart ===
 
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;"
The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:
|+the 136 basic Kala syllables
 
* '''mita tlaka anya''' - <small>dog man see</small> - ''The dog sees the man.''
* '''tlaka mita anya''' - <small>man dog see</small> - ''The man sees the dog.''
 
In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.
 
= content words =
 
== nouns ==
 
=== plural ===
 
* Nouns can be marked [[wp:Plural|plural]] ('''PL''') by '''-m''' (or '''-lo''' if the final syllable contains /m/ or /p/, or, if the word begins with a vowel).
** In general the plural suffix is not used when the plurality of the noun is clear from context. For example, while the English sentence "there are three dogs" would use the plural "dogs" instead of the singular "dog", the '''Kala''' sentence '''mita ha'o a''' "dog three exist" keeps the word '''mita''' "dog" in its unmarked form, as the numeral makes the plural marker redundant.
** The collective plural is marked by '''tli'''-, derived from '''tatli''', meaning ''group; collection; gathering''. It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the [[wp:Collective_noun|collective]] plural ('''COL''').
 
* '''ata''' - name > '''atalo''' - names
* '''mita''' – dog > '''mitam''' - dogs > '''tlimita''' – pack of dogs
* '''yama''' – mountain > '''tliyamalo''' – mountain ranges
* '''tsaka''' – house > '''tlitsaka''' – neighborhood
* '''puku''' – clothing > '''tlipuku''' – wardrobe
 
=== gender ===
 
* [[wp:Grammatical_gender|Gender]] is not normally marked but can be by '''-na''' (FEM), '''-ta''' (MASC), or nouns such as '''naka''', '''tlaka''', '''nahi''', or '''tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. A gender neutral suffix, '''-nta''' may be used when the gender is unknown or ambiguous.
 
== pronouns ==
'''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. There is a special pronoun '''na'am''' which is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
Personal pronouns:
 
* '''na''' - 1st person
* '''ta''' - 2nd person
* '''ha''' - 3rd person
* '''tla''' - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for [[wp:Animacy|inanimate]] nouns)
<small>''[[Kala/syllables#Personal_Pronouns|Here]] is a chart with all regular declensions of Kala pronouns.''</small>
{{col-break}}
Modifiers:
 
* '''-m''' - plural
* '''-nku''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_pronoun|reciprocal]] (only attaches to plural pronouns)
* '''e-''' - patient
* '''-i''' - reflexive
* '''-yo''' - possessive
{{col-break}}
Other pronouns include:
 
* '''tlokua''' - everyone, everybody
* '''kola''' - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
* '''tlok''' - no one, nobody
* '''nokua''' - everything
* '''nola''' - something; whatever, anything
* '''nok''' - nothing
{{col-end}}
=== demonstratives ===
The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show [[Wikipedia:Deixis|deixis]]. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|proximal]] or first person (objects near to the speaker), [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|medial]] or second person (objects near to the addressee), and [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|distal]] or third person (objects far from both).
 
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''itla''' ('''i-''') - this (near me)
* '''uatla''' ('''ua-''') - that (near you)
* '''yetla''' ('''ye-''') - that (over there)
 
Examples:
 
* '''imitami''' - <small>PROX-dog-few</small> - ''A few of these dogs''
* '''yemitampa''' - <small>DIST-dog-many</small> - ''Many of those dogs (over there)''
* '''uamitali''' - <small>MED-dog-each</small> - ''Each of those dogs (near you)''
{{col-break}}
Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.
 
* '''kua''' ('''-kua''') - all; every; whole
* '''oli''' ('''-li''') - each; every
* '''ula''' ('''-la''') - whatever; any; some
* '''mi''' ('''-mi''') - few; little
* '''nke''' ('''-k''') - none
* '''mpa''' ('''-mpa''') - many; much; a lot
* '''maha''' - more; plus
* '''ohi''' - less; fewer
{{col-end}}
 
== verbs ==
 
Verbs in Kala are either active or or stative. Active verbs solely denote actions and occurrences and never states in Kala. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an attributive and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result.
 
==== tense ====
 
Kala has three simple tenses; past, present, and future. Present tense is unmarked. However, past ('''-ye''') and future ('''-tli''') tenses can be modified to include immediate future ("''is about to''..."), distant future ("''will...in a long while''"), recent past ("''just'' ..."), and remote past ("...''a long while ago''"). These distinctions are made with the augmentative and diminutive endings '''-ha''' and '''-hi'''.
 
* The present tense can show immediacy by using the adverb '''ima''', "now; at this time":
:'''ima mita ina''' - <small>now dog eat</small> - ''The dog is eating right now.''
 
* If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted.
:Example: '''yomaye nam ina''' - <small>yesterday 1pl eat</small> - We ate yesterday.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
|+ eme
|-
|-
!  
!  
! Kala
! a
! gloss
! e
! English
! i
! o
! u
! ua
! ue
! ya
! ye
! yo
! ai
! ao
! uai
! yao
|-
! p
| align="center"|''(m)pa''
| align="center"|''(m)pe''
| align="center"|''(m)pi''
| align="center"|''(m)po''
| align="center"|''(m)pu''
| align="center"|''pua''
| align="center"|''pue''
| align="center"|''pya''
| align="center"|''pye''
| align="center"|''pyo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''pai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''pao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''puai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''pyao''</font>
|-
|-
! Present
! t
| '''mita ina''' || <small>dog eat</small> || ''The dog eats.''
| align="center"|''(n)ta''
| align="center"|''(n)te''
| align="center"|''(n)ti''
| align="center"|''(n)to''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tao''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
|-
! Past
! k
| '''mita inaye''' || <small>dog eat-PST</small> || ''The dog ate.''
| align="center"|''(n)ka''
| align="center"|''(n)ke''
| align="center"|''(n)ki''
| align="center"|''(n)ko''
| align="center"|''(n)ku''
| align="center"|''kua''
| align="center"|''kue''
| align="center"|''kya''
| align="center"|''kye''
| align="center"|''kyo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''kai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''kao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''kuai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''kyao''</font>
|-
|-
! Recent Past
! m
| '''mita inayehi'''<br>or '''-hye''' || <small>dog eat-REC</small> || ''The dog just ate.''<br>(action just finished)
| align="center"|''ma''
| align="center"|''me''
| align="center"|''mi''
| align="center"|''mo''
| align="center"|''mu''
| align="center"|''mua''
| align="center"|''mue''
| align="center"|''mya''
| align="center"|''mye''
| align="center"|''myo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''mai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''mao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''muai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''myao''</font>
|-
|-
! Remote Past
! n
| '''mita inayeha''' || <small>dog eat-REM</small> || ''The dog ate long ago.''<br>(before the lifetime of the speaker)
| align="center"|''na''
| align="center"|''ne''
| align="center"|''ni''
| align="center"|''no''
| align="center"|''nu''
| align="center"|''nua''
| align="center"|''nue''
| align="center"|''nya''
| align="center"|''nye''
| align="center"|''nyo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''nai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''nao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''nuai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''nyao''</font>
|-
|-
! Future
! s
| '''mita inatli''' || <small>dog eat-FUT</small> || ''The dog will eat.''
| align="center"|''sa''
| align="center"|''se''
| align="center"|''si''
| align="center"|''so''
| align="center"|''su''
| align="center"|''sua''
| align="center"|''sue''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''sai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''sao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''suai''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
|-
! Immediate Future
! h
| '''mita inatlihi'''<br>or '''-tlai''' || <small>dog eat-IMM</small> || ''The dog will eat soon.''<br>(within the day)
| align="center"|''ha''
| align="center"|''he''
| align="center"|''hi''
| align="center"|''ho''
| align="center"|''hu''
| align="center"|''hua''
| align="center"|''hue''
| align="center"|''hya''
| align="center"|''hye''
| align="center"|''hyo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''hai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''hao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''huai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''hyao''</font>
|-
|-
! Distant Future
! ts
| '''mita inatliha''' || <small>dog eat-DIS</small> || ''The dog will eat a long while from now.''<br>(months from now)
| align="center"|''tsa''
| align="center"|''tse''
| align="center"|''tsi''
| align="center"|''tso''
| align="center"|''tsu''
| align="center"|''tsua''
| align="center"|''tsue''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsuai''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
! tl
| align="center"|''tla''
| align="center"|''tle''
| align="center"|''tli''
| align="center"|''tlo''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlao''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
! l
| align="center"|''la''
| align="center"|''le''
| align="center"|''li''
| align="center"|''lo''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''lai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''lao''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
! -
| align="center"|''a''
| align="center"|''e''
| align="center"|''i''
| align="center"|''o''
| align="center"|''u''
| align="center"|''ua''
| align="center"|''ue''
| align="center"|''ya''
| align="center"|''ye''
| align="center"|''yo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''ai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''ao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''uai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''yao''</font>
|}
|}


==== aspect ====
<small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The '''A-O''' columns are called '''''mpalo''''' and are the most common, the '''U-YO''' are called '''''puhyo''''', the '''AI-YAO'''/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as '''''paihyao'''''.</small>


There are four aspects in Kala. The progressive, also called the [[Wikipedia:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|continuous]] ['''CONT'''], this is used to express an incomplete action or state in progress at a specific time. It is marked with '''-nko''', from '''nkoso''' - "to continue; proceed; progress". The [[Wikipedia:Perfective_aspect|perfective]] aspect indicates that an action is completed ['''PFV''']. It is often translated by the English present perfect (''have done some-thing''). It is marked with '''-pua''', from '''opua''' - "to end; finish; complete". The [[Wikipedia:Inchoative_aspect|inchoative]] aspect refers to the beginning of a state ['''INCH''']. It is marked with '''-mu''', from '''mula''' - "to begin; start; initiate". The [[Wikipedia:Frequentative|frequentative]] aspect refers to a repeated action ['''FREQ''']. It is marked with '''-nua''', from '''nua''' - "frequent; often; regular".
=== collating order ===
The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the [[Kala/writing#Naua|'''Naua''']] script.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ ti'a
! Consonants
|-
| '''p'''
!
| '''t'''
! Kala
| '''k'''
! gloss
| '''m'''
! English
| '''n'''
|-
| '''s'''
! Progressive
| '''h'''
| '''mita inanko''' || <small>dog eat-CONT</small> || ''The dog is eating.''
| '''ts'''
|-
| '''tl'''
! Perfective
| '''l'''
| '''mita inapua''' || <small>dog eat-PFV</small> || ''The dog has eaten.''
|-align=center
|-
! Vowels
! Inchoative
| '''a'''
| '''mita inamu''' || <small>dog eat-INCH</small> || ''The dog begins to eat.''
| '''e'''
|-
| '''i'''
! Frequentative
| '''o'''
| '''mita inanua''' || <small>dog eat-FREQ</small> || ''The dog eats often.''
| '''u'''
| '''ua'''
| '''ue'''
| '''ya'''
| '''ye'''
| '''yo'''
|-align=center
|}
|}


==== mood ====
Based on this order, '''ma''' would come before '''ha''', etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. '''mpa''' comes after '''pyo''' but before '''ta'''. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]]. This order can be vocalized as ''“pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”'', this aides in memorization and organization.


The negative mood (always marked finally) is indicated by the suffix –'''k''' or '''–nke''' (when the last syllable contains /k/).
== stress ==
[[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;


* '''mita inayek''' - <small>dog eat-PST-NEG</small> - ''The dog did not eat.''
* '''<u>ma</u>sa''' - /ˈmaːsa/ → '''ma<u>sa</u>ko''' - /maːˈsako/
* '''mita mokunke''' - <small>dog sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog does not sleep.''
* '''tli<u>ya</u>ma''' - /tɬiːˈjama/ → '''tliya<u>ma</u>lo''' - /tɬiːjaˈmalo/
* '''kam''' - /kaːm/ → '''<u>ka</u>myo''' - /ˈkaːmʲo/
* '''empa<u>ha</u>pak''' - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → '''empaha<u>pa</u>yek''' - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/


==== affix ordering ====
= orthography =


Verbs can be marked with several suffixes to add or change meaning. The modals and tense affixes can be added in different order to a verb to create a new meaning…their placement is not always fixed. The negative, adjectival, and plural ending are always final, while other affixes can be varied, but in general they should be ordered:
= morphology =


<tt>STEM-(SIZE/IMPORTANCE)-(MOOD)-(ASPECT)-(TENSE)-(NEGATIVE)</tt>
== nouns ==


Example:
=== pronouns ===


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
=== determiners and demonstratives ===
|+
 
|-
== verbs ==
! Verb Stem
 
! Size/Importance
=== passive ===
! Mood
 
! Aspect
=== causative ===
! Tense
 
! Negative
=== inceptive ===
|-
 
| '''empa''' || '''-hi''' || '''-pa'''  || '''-nko''' || '''-ye''' || '''-k'''
=== infinitive ===
|-
 
| run || DIM || ABIL || PROG  || PST || NEG
=== copula ===
|}
 
=== stative verbs ===


* '''na empahipankoyek'''
= derivational morphology =
: <small>1SG run-DIM-able-PROG-PST-NEG</small>
: ''I was not able to keep jogging.''


=== adjectives ===
== nominalizers ==
Kala does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives. This leaves open to interpretation many phrases.
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break}}
* '''mita inya''' - <small>dog be.hungry</small>
** ''The dog hungers.''
** ''The dog is hungry.''
** ''The hungry dog.''
** ''A hungry dog.''
{{Col-break}}
* '''tsaka ketlahi''' - <small>house be.red-DIM</small>
** ''The house is a little red.''
** ''The light-red house.''
** ''A pale red house.''
{{Col-break}}
* '''taki saua''' - <small>coat be.wet</small>
** ''The coat is wet.''
** ''The wet coat.''
** ''A wet coat.''
{{Col-break}}
* '''umalo tahaku''' - <small>horse-PL be.big-extreme</small>
** ''The horses are extremely large.''
** ''The very big horses.''
{{Col-end}}


=== adpositionals ===
== reduplication ==
Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. There is one general locative (-'''hue''') which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”. Here are some common verbs used as [[wp:Preposition_and_postposition|adpositions]]:
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
* '''pahe''' - against; touching
* '''pa'e''' - apart from; other than; except for
* '''paye''' - beyond; exceeding; farther than
* '''pue''' - after; back; behind; rear
* '''tahe''' - below; beneath; under
* '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at [moving toward]
* '''kaye''' - around; encircling; surrounding
* '''mahe''' - around; approximate; close to
* '''ma'a''' - with [accompanied by / furnished with]
* '''ma'e''' - before; in front
* '''maye''' - between; among
{{Col-2}}
* '''nahe ''' - in [located inside of]; internal
* '''nyaue''' - outside of; exterior to
* '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
* '''saye''' - along; following [a line]
* '''hue / -hue''' - at [in the same location as] [LOC]
* '''tsa'e''' - across; through
* '''ua'e''' - above; over / on
* '''uaye''' - from [moving out of or away from]
* '''ya'e''' - near; close to
* '''yomo''' - to the right of
* '''yoso''' - to the left of
{{Col-end}}


== numbers ==
== verbalizers ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
|+ uku
|-
! Kala
! number
! English
! Kala
! number
! English
! Kala
! number
! English
|-
| '''ye'o''' || 0 || zero || '''tsa'o''' || 6 || six || '''nya'o''' || 500 || five hundred
|-
| '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''ka'o''' || 7 || seven || '''tle'o''' || 10<sup>3</sup> || (one) thousand
|-
| '''ta'o''' || 2 || two || '''pa'o''' || 8 || eight || '''mue'o''' || 10<sup>4</sup> || ten thousand
|-
| '''ha'o''' || 3 || three || '''sa'o''' || 9 || nine || '''kye'o''' || 10<sup>5</sup> || (one) hundred thousand
|-
| '''ma'o''' || 4 || four || '''ue'o''' || 10 || ten || '''nte'o''' || 10<sup>6</sup> || (one) million
|-
| '''ya'o''' || 5 || five || '''nye'o''' || 100 || (one) hundred || '''hue'o''' || 10<sup>9</sup> || (one) billion
|}


=== forming larger numbers ===
= syntax =


* '''uena'o''' - eleven / 11
== word order ==
* '''taue'o''' - twenty / 20
* '''nyeka'o''' - one hundred seven / 107
* '''hanyetauetsa'o''' (''long form'') / '''hatatsa'o''' (''short form'') - three hundred twenty six / 326
* '''tsatletauema'o''' - six thousand and twenty four / 6024


=== other number forms ===
== case usage ==


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
== noun phrases ==
|+
|-
! Kala
! number
! English
! ordinal
! multiple
! fractional
|-
| '''na'o''' || 1 || one  || '''kina'o'''<br>first || '''tina'o'''<br>once || -
|-
| '''ueta'o''' || 12 || twelve || '''kiueta'o'''<br>twelfth  || '''tiueta'o'''<br>twelve times || '''iueta'o'''<br>a twelfth
|-
| '''yauema'o'''<br>'''(yama'o)''' || 54 || fifty four  || '''kiyama'o'''<br>fifty fourth || '''tiyama'o'''<br>54 times || '''iyama'o'''<br>a fifty fourth
|-
| '''nyetsa'o''' || 106 || one hundred (and) six || '''kinyetsa'o'''<br>106<sup>th</sup> || '''tinyetsa'o'''<br>106 times || '''inyetsa'o'''<br>a 106<sup>th</sup>
|-
| '''katle'o''' || 7000 || seven thousand  || '''kikatle'o'''<br>seven thousandth || '''tikatle'o'''<br>7000 times || '''ikatle'o'''<br>1/7000
|}


= function words =
== numbers ==


== particles ==
== comparisons ==


== conjunctions ==
== prepositions ==
There are three coordinating conjunctions in Kala and three correlative conjunctions:
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
=== coordinating ===
* '''ma''' - and; also
:: '''mita ina ma moku''' - <small>dog eat and sleep</small> - ''The dog eats and sleeps.''
* '''ua''' - or
:: '''mita ina ua moku''' - <small>dog eat or sleep</small> - ''The dog eats or sleeps.''
* '''ehe''' ('''me''') - but; yet
:: '''mita ina ma mokunke''' - <small>dog eat but sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog eats but does not sleep.''
{{col-break}}
=== correlative ===
* '''yema''' - both X and Y
:: '''mita ina yema empa''' - <small>dog eat both.X.and.Y run</small> - ''The dog eats and runs.''
* '''ue''' - either X or Y
:: '''mita ina ue empa''' - <small>dog eat either.X.or.Y run</small> - ''The dog is either eating or running.''
* '''uenke''' ('''uek''') - neither X nor Y
:: '''mita ina uenke empa''' - <small>dog eat neither.X.nor.Y run</small> - ''The dog is neither eating nor running.''
{{col-end}}


== interjections ==
== tense usage ==


= questions =
== moods ==


There are two types of questions: [[Wikipedia:Yes–no_question|Polar]], those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers. Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.
== aspect ==


* '''mita ina''' - <small>dog eat</small> - ''The dog eats.''
== conditionals ==
** '''mita ina ka''' - <small>dog eat Q</small> - ''Does the dog eat?''


The other type contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':
== subordinate clauses ==


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
== negatives ==
|+ kanyo
|-
!
! Kala
! gloss
! English
|-
! object
| '''ke mita ina ka''' || <small>O dog eat Q</small> || ''What does the dog eat?''
|-
! person
| '''ko ina ka''' || <small>person eat Q</small> || ''Who eats?''
|-
! possession
| '''koyo mita ina ka''' || <small>person-POSS dog eat Q</small> || ''Whose dog eats?''
|-
! manner
| '''to mita ina ka''' || <small>manner dog eat Q</small> || ''How does the dog eat?''
|-
! place
| '''mo mita ina ka''' || <small>place dog eat Q</small> || ''Where does the dog eat?''
|-
! reason
| '''nye mita ina ka''' || <small>reason dog eat Q</small> || ''Why does the dog eat?''
|-
! time
| '''ama mita ina ka''' || <small>time dog eat Q</small> || ''When does the dog eat?''
|-
! amount
| '''uku mita ina ka''' || <small>amount dog eat Q</small> || ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
|-
! which
| '''ula mita ina ka''' || <small>any dog eat Q</small> || ''Which dog eats?''
|}


= syntax =
== questions ==

Latest revision as of 08:37, 24 January 2022

introduction

phonology

consonants

Consonants
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m (m) n (n) ɲ (ny)
Plosive p~b (p) t~d (t) k~g (k) ʔ ( ' )
Affricate ts~t͡ʃ (ts) t͡ɬ~tl (tl)
Continuant s~ʃ (s) l~ɾ (l) h~ɦ (h)
Semivowel j (y) w (u)

The glottal stop is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.

  • Prenasalized: /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
  • Labialized:/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
  • Palatalized: /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/

free variation

Because of its small phoneme inventory, Kala allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.

Sound Changes

The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/. The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, sama (sun; star; solar) is /ˈʃaːma/ where sitsa (heat; hot) is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and tsisi (embroider; embroidery) is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.

vowels

Vowels
Front Back
Close i~ɪ (i) u~ʊ (u)
Mid e~ɛ (e) o~o: (o)
Open a~ɑ (a)

Kala has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. tsunka [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').

diphthongs

Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] ai and [aʊ̯] ao, but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] ua, [we] ue, [ja] ya, [je] ye, and [jo] yo. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] uai and [jaʊ̯] yao are very rare but should be noted as possible.

phonotactics

The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) (N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i) where (N) indicates nasalization, and u and y indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.

There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by Kala phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as tata for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).

When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by –u, which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be tsuala’u meaning “to become prosperous”, from tsuala “prosper; be prosperous” and the suffix –la meaning “become; change into”, used to indicate the mutative.

gemination

Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. naka (woman) can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas nakkan (chieftess) can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.

syllables

Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings –m (indicating general plural, deriving from ma, meaning “and, also”), -n (indicating accusative case, deriving from no, meaning “thing, object”), and –k (indicating negative mood, deriving from nke, meaning “no, not”).

syllable chart

the 136 basic Kala syllables
a e i o u ua ue ya ye yo ai ao uai yao
p (m)pa (m)pe (m)pi (m)po (m)pu pua pue pya pye pyo pai pao puai pyao
t (n)ta (n)te (n)ti (n)to tai tao
k (n)ka (n)ke (n)ki (n)ko (n)ku kua kue kya kye kyo kai kao kuai kyao
m ma me mi mo mu mua mue mya mye myo mai mao muai myao
n na ne ni no nu nua nue nya nye nyo nai nao nuai nyao
s sa se si so su sua sue sai sao suai
h ha he hi ho hu hua hue hya hye hyo hai hao huai hyao
ts tsa tse tsi tso tsu tsua tsue tsai tsao tsuai
tl tla tle tli tlo tlai tlao
l la le li lo lai lao
- a e i o u ua ue ya ye yo ai ao uai yao

Syllables such as nsa, ntla, or ntsa can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The A-O columns are called mpalo and are the most common, the U-YO are called puhyo, the AI-YAO/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as paihyao.

collating order

The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the Naua script.

Consonants p t k m n s h ts tl l
Vowels a e i o u ua ue ya ye yo

Based on this order, ma would come before ha, etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. mpa comes after pyo but before ta. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the lexicon. This order can be vocalized as “pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”, this aides in memorization and organization.

stress

Stress generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is de facto initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;

  • masa - /ˈmaːsa/ → masako - /maːˈsako/
  • tliyama - /tɬiːˈjama/ → tliyamalo - /tɬiːjaˈmalo/
  • kam - /kaːm/ → kamyo - /ˈkaːmʲo/
  • empahapak - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → empahapayek - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/

orthography

morphology

nouns

pronouns

determiners and demonstratives

verbs

passive

causative

inceptive

infinitive

copula

stative verbs

derivational morphology

nominalizers

reduplication

verbalizers

syntax

word order

case usage

noun phrases

numbers

comparisons

prepositions

tense usage

moods

aspect

conditionals

subordinate clauses

negatives

questions

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