Latest revision as of 07:37, 24 January 2022

introduction

phonology

consonants

Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes.

Consonants
	Labial	Alveolar		Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	m (m)	n (n)		ɲ (ny)
Plosive	p~b (p)	t~d (t)			k~g (k)	ʔ ( ' )
Affricate		ts~t͡ʃ (ts)	t͡ɬ~tl (tl)
Continuant		s~ʃ (s)	l~ɾ (l)			h~ɦ (h)
Semivowel				j (y)	w (u)

The glottal stop is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.

Prenasalized: /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
Labialized:/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
Palatalized: /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/

free variation

Because of its small phoneme inventory, Kala allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.

Sound Changes

The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/. The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, sama (sun; star; solar) is /ˈʃaːma/ where sitsa (heat; hot) is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and tsisi (embroider; embroidery) is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.

vowels

Vowels
	Front	Back
Close	i~ɪ (i)	u~ʊ (u)
Mid	e~ɛ (e)	o~o: (o)
Open	a~ɑ (a)

Kala has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. tsunka [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').

diphthongs

Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] ai and [aʊ̯] ao, but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] ua, [we] ue, [ja] ya, [je] ye, and [jo] yo. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] uai and [jaʊ̯] yao are very rare but should be noted as possible.

phonotactics

The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) (N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i) where (N) indicates nasalization, and u and y indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.

There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by Kala phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as tata for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).

When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by –u, which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be tsuala’u meaning “to become prosperous”, from tsuala “prosper; be prosperous” and the suffix –la meaning “become; change into”, used to indicate the mutative.

gemination

Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. naka (woman) can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas nakkan (chieftess) can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.

syllables

Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings –m (indicating general plural, deriving from ma, meaning “and, also”), -n (indicating accusative case, deriving from no, meaning “thing, object”), and –k (indicating negative mood, deriving from nke, meaning “no, not”).

syllable chart

the 136 basic Kala syllables
	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo	ai	ao	uai	yao
p	(m)pa	(m)pe	(m)pi	(m)po	(m)pu	pua	pue	pya	pye	pyo	pai	pao	puai	pyao
t	(n)ta	(n)te	(n)ti	(n)to							tai	tao
k	(n)ka	(n)ke	(n)ki	(n)ko	(n)ku	kua	kue	kya	kye	kyo	kai	kao	kuai	kyao
m	ma	me	mi	mo	mu	mua	mue	mya	mye	myo	mai	mao	muai	myao
n	na	ne	ni	no	nu	nua	nue	nya	nye	nyo	nai	nao	nuai	nyao
s	sa	se	si	so	su	sua	sue				sai	sao	suai
h	ha	he	hi	ho	hu	hua	hue	hya	hye	hyo	hai	hao	huai	hyao
ts	tsa	tse	tsi	tso	tsu	tsua	tsue				tsai	tsao	tsuai
tl	tla	tle	tli	tlo							tlai	tlao
l	la	le	li	lo							lai	lao
-	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo	ai	ao	uai	yao

Syllables such as nsa, ntla, or ntsa can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The A-O columns are called mpalo and are the most common, the U-YO are called puhyo, the AI-YAO/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as paihyao.

collating order

The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the Naua script.

Consonants	p	t	k	m	n	s	h	ts	tl	l
Vowels	a	e	i	o	u	ua	ue	ya	ye	yo

Based on this order, ma would come before ha, etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. mpa comes after pyo but before ta. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the lexicon. This order can be vocalized as “pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”, this aides in memorization and organization.

stress

Stress generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is de facto initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 = introduction =
-Kala is a personal [[Wikipedia:Constructed_language|conlang]] (actually more of an [[Wikipedia:Artistic_language#Personal_languages|artlang]]), not attached to any [[Wikipedia:Worldbuilding|conworld]] or conculture.
-== characteristics ==
-Kala is a context-oriented language. In most cases, the more important elements of a phrase are clustered toward the end of the sentence (e.g. verbs and their modifiers). The less important an element is to the understanding of a sentence, the more likely it is to be dropped. Consequently, many Kala sentences end-up consisting solely of a verb (or adjectival verb). More so in conversation than in written Kala, these short phrases are grammatically correct and natural. Here are some examples:
-* '''muya ka''' - <small>do Q</small> - ''(What are you) doing?''
-* '''ina''' - <small>eat</small> - ''(I am) eating.''
-* '''tamatse''' - <small>good-seem</small> - ''(That looks) good.''
-* '''ueha ka''' - <small>want Q</small> - ''(Do you) want (some)?''
-* '''nyasak''' - <small>thank-NEG</small> - ''No, thank (you).''
-Notice that none of the above contain any pronouns, or nouns. Any contextually understood elements may be omitted unless indispensable.
-== parts of speech ==
-Kala has two parts of speech. Nouns and verbs are [[wp:Content_word|content words]], while particles (and others) tend to be only [[wp:Function_word|functional]].  Many content words can be used as both nouns and verbs. The best, and most common example would be '''ina''' (food; to eat).
-* '''na ina''' - <small>1SG eat</small> - ''I eat.''
-** '''na ke ina anya''' - <small>1SG O food see</small> - ''I see the food.''
-== borrowing ==
-Kala borrows extensively from various natural languages. This is a very small sample of borrowings:
-''See also: [[Kala/etymology|etymology]]''
-* '''kala''' – ''to speak, talk, converse''; from Arabic [[Wiktionary:تكلم|''takallama'']]
-* '''na''' – ''I, me''; from Arabic [[Wiktionary:أنا|''ʾanā'']]
-* '''pato''' – ''duck (Anatidae)''; from Spanish [[Wiktionary:pato|''pato'']]
-* '''tsenka''' – ''orange''; from Chinese [[Wiktionary:橙|''chéng'']]
-* '''uasi''' – ''to take, get, acquire''; from Lakota [[Wiktionary:wasi'chu|''wasichu'']]
-* '''myonta''' – ''to allow, permit''; from Finnish [[Wiktionary:myöntää|''myöntää'']]
-* '''a''' – ''to be, exist, yes''; from Japanese [[Wiktionary:ある|''aru'']]
-== glossing ==
-Glossing abbreviations.
-* [[wp:Grammatical_persoon|person]] - '''1, 2, 3, 4'''
-* [[wp:Agent_(grammar)|agent]] - '''AG'''
-* [[wp:Genitive_case|genitive]] - '''GEN'''
-* [[wp:Locative_case|locative]] - '''LOC'''
 = phonology =
-=== consonants ===
+== consonants ==
 * Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
@@ Line 70: / Line 26: @@
 |colspan=2|t~d ('''t''')
 |
-| k~g ('''g''')
+| k~g ('''k''')
 | ʔ (''' ' ''')
 |-
@@ Line 94: / Line 50: @@
 |
 |}
+The [[wp:Glottal_stop|glottal stop]] is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.
 * '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
@@ Line 99: / Line 57: @@
 * '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/
-<small>Note: Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short.</small>
+=== free variation ===
+Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of [[wp:Free_variation|allophonic variation]]. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.
-=== vowels ===
+=== Sound Changes ===
+The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/.  The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, '''sama''' (''sun; star; solar'') is /ˈʃaːma/ where '''sitsa''' (''heat; hot'') is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and '''tsisi''' (''embroider; embroidery'') is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.
+== vowels ==
 {| class="wikitable"
 |+Vowels
@@ Line 109: / Line 71: @@
 |-align=center
 !'''Close'''
-|{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~u:}} '''(u)'''
+|{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~ʊ}} '''(u)'''
 |-align=center
 !'''Mid'''
@@ Line 115: / Line 77: @@
 |-align=center
 !'''Open'''
-|colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~a:}} '''(a)'''
+|colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~ɑ}} '''(a)'''
 |}
 '''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
-==== diphthongs ====
+=== diphthongs ===
+Phonetically, '''Kala''' has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] '''ai''' and [aʊ̯] '''ao''', but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] '''ua''', [we] '''ue''', [ja] '''ya''', [je] '''ye''', and [jo] '''yo'''. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] '''uai''' and [jaʊ̯] '''yao''' are very rare but should be noted as possible.
-Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] and [aʊ̯], but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa], [we], [ja], [je], and [jo]. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] and [jaʊ̯] are very rare but should be noted as possible.
+== phonotactics ==
+The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) '''(N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i)''' where '''(N)''' indicates nasalization, and '''u''' and '''y''' indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.
-=== syllable structure ===
+There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as '''tata''' for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).
-'''Kala''' words are typically made up of [[wp:Syllable#Open_and_closed|open syllables]] of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most words having syllables exclusively of this type. There is a limited set of syllables allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. They are listed here: [[:File:Kalasyl.png|syllable chart]], or [[Kala/syllables|here]].
+When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by '''–u''', which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be '''tsuala’u''' meaning ''“to become prosperous”'', from '''tsuala''' ''“prosper; be prosperous”'' and the suffix '''–la''' meaning ''“become; change into”'', used to indicate the mutative.
-* /l/ cannot occur word initially (except in loan words and [[wp:Toponymy|toponyms]]).
+=== gemination ===
+Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. '''naka''' (''woman'') can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas '''nakkan''' (''chieftess'') can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.
-=== stress ===
+=== syllables ===
+Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings '''–m''' (indicating general plural, deriving from '''ma''', meaning ''“and, also”''), '''-n''' (indicating accusative case, deriving from '''no''', meaning ''“thing, object”''), and '''–k''' (indicating negative mood, deriving from '''nke''', meaning ''“no, not”'').
-[[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV).
+=== syllable chart ===
+{| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;"
+|+the 136 basic Kala syllables
+|-
+!
+! a
+! e
+! i
+! o
+! u
+! ua
+! ue
+! ya
+! ye
+! yo
+! ai
+! ao
+! uai
+! yao
+|-
+! p
+| align="center"|''(m)pa''
+| align="center"|''(m)pe''
+| align="center"|''(m)pi''
+| align="center"|''(m)po''
+| align="center"|''(m)pu''
+| align="center"|''pua''
+| align="center"|''pue''
+| align="center"|''pya''
+| align="center"|''pye''
+| align="center"|''pyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''pai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''pao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''puai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''pyao''</font>
+|-
+! t
+| align="center"|''(n)ta''
+| align="center"|''(n)te''
+| align="center"|''(n)ti''
+| align="center"|''(n)to''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tao''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+|-
+! k
+| align="center"|''(n)ka''
+| align="center"|''(n)ke''
+| align="center"|''(n)ki''
+| align="center"|''(n)ko''
+| align="center"|''(n)ku''
+| align="center"|''kua''
+| align="center"|''kue''
+| align="center"|''kya''
+| align="center"|''kye''
+| align="center"|''kyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kuai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''kyao''</font>
+|-
+! m
+| align="center"|''ma''
+| align="center"|''me''
+| align="center"|''mi''
+| align="center"|''mo''
+| align="center"|''mu''
+| align="center"|''mua''
+| align="center"|''mue''
+| align="center"|''mya''
+| align="center"|''mye''
+| align="center"|''myo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''mai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''mao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''muai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''myao''</font>
+|-
+! n
+| align="center"|''na''
+| align="center"|''ne''
+| align="center"|''ni''
+| align="center"|''no''
+| align="center"|''nu''
+| align="center"|''nua''
+| align="center"|''nue''
+| align="center"|''nya''
+| align="center"|''nye''
+| align="center"|''nyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nuai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''nyao''</font>
+|-
+! s
+| align="center"|''sa''
+| align="center"|''se''
+| align="center"|''si''
+| align="center"|''so''
+| align="center"|''su''
+| align="center"|''sua''
+| align="center"|''sue''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''sai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''sao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''suai''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+|-
+! h
+| align="center"|''ha''
+| align="center"|''he''
+| align="center"|''hi''
+| align="center"|''ho''
+| align="center"|''hu''
+| align="center"|''hua''
+| align="center"|''hue''
+| align="center"|''hya''
+| align="center"|''hye''
+| align="center"|''hyo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''hai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''hao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''huai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''hyao''</font>
+|-
+! ts
+| align="center"|''tsa''
+| align="center"|''tse''
+| align="center"|''tsi''
+| align="center"|''tso''
+| align="center"|''tsu''
+| align="center"|''tsua''
+| align="center"|''tsue''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsuai''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+|-
+! tl
+| align="center"|''tla''
+| align="center"|''tle''
+| align="center"|''tli''
+| align="center"|''tlo''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlao''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+|-
+! l
+| align="center"|''la''
+| align="center"|''le''
+| align="center"|''li''
+| align="center"|''lo''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''lai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''lao''</font>
+| align="center"|'' ''
+| align="center"|'' ''
+|-
+! -
+| align="center"|''a''
+| align="center"|''e''
+| align="center"|''i''
+| align="center"|''o''
+| align="center"|''u''
+| align="center"|''ua''
+| align="center"|''ue''
+| align="center"|''ya''
+| align="center"|''ye''
+| align="center"|''yo''
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''ai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''ao''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''uai''</font>
+| align="center"|<font color="red">''yao''</font>
+|}
-= orthography =
+<small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The '''A-O''' columns are called '''''mpalo''''' and are the most common, the '''U-YO''' are called '''''puhyo''''', the '''AI-YAO'''/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as '''''paihyao'''''.</small>
-* Kala conscripts are many and varied. Rather than multiple pages explaining each of them, [[Kala/writing|'''this''']] page serves as a working list with a consistent example across each script.
+=== collating order ===
+The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the [[Kala/writing#Naua|'''Naua''']] script.
-= word order =
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
+! Consonants
+| '''p'''
+| '''t'''
+| '''k'''
+| '''m'''
+| '''n'''
+| '''s'''
+| '''h'''
+| '''ts'''
+| '''tl'''
+| '''l'''
+|-align=center
+! Vowels
+| '''a'''
+| '''e'''
+| '''i'''
+| '''o'''
+| '''u'''
+| '''ua'''
+| '''ue'''
+| '''ya'''
+| '''ye'''
+| '''yo'''
+|-align=center
+|}
-The basic structure of a '''Kala''' sentence is:
+Based on this order, '''ma''' would come before '''ha''', etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. '''mpa''' comes after '''pyo''' but before '''ta'''. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]]. This order can be vocalized as ''“pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”'', this aides in memorization and organization.
-AGENT--PATIENT--VERB (or [[wp:Subject–object–verb|'''SOV''']])
+== stress ==
+[[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;
-The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:
+* '''<u>ma</u>sa''' - /ˈmaːsa/ → '''ma<u>sa</u>ko''' - /maːˈsako/
+* '''tli<u>ya</u>ma''' - /tɬiːˈjama/ → '''tliya<u>ma</u>lo''' - /tɬiːjaˈmalo/
+* '''kam''' - /kaːm/ → '''<u>ka</u>myo''' - /ˈkaːmʲo/
+* '''empa<u>ha</u>pak''' - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → '''empaha<u>pa</u>yek''' - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/
-* '''mita tlaka anya''' - <small>dog man see</small> - ''The dog sees the man.''
+= orthography =
-* '''tlaka mita anya''' - <small>man dog see</small> - ''The man sees the dog.''
-In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.
+= morphology =
-= content words =
 == nouns ==
-=== plural ===
+=== pronouns ===
-* Nouns can be marked [[wp:Plural|plural]] ('''PL''') by '''-m''' (or '''-lo''' if the final syllable contains /m/ or /p/, or, if the word begins with a vowel).
-** In general the plural suffix is not used when the plurality of the noun is clear from context. For example, while the English sentence "there are three dogs" would use the plural "dogs" instead of the singular "dog", the '''Kala''' sentence '''mita ha'o a''' "dog three exist" keeps the word '''mita''' "dog" in its unmarked form, as the numeral makes the plural marker redundant.
-** The collective plural is marked by '''tli'''-, derived from '''tatli''', meaning ''group; collection; gathering''. It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the [[wp:Collective_noun|collective]] plural ('''COL''').
-* '''ata''' - name > '''atalo''' - names
-* '''mita''' – dog > '''mitam''' - dogs > '''tlimita''' – pack of dogs
-* '''yama''' – mountain > '''tliyamalo''' – mountain ranges
-* '''tsaka''' – house > '''tlitsaka''' – neighborhood
-* '''puku''' – clothing > '''tlipuku''' – wardrobe
-=== gender ===
-* [[wp:Grammatical_gender|Gender]] is not normally marked but can be by '''-na''' (FEM), '''-ta''' (MASC), or nouns such as '''naka''', '''tlaka''', '''nahi''', or '''tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. A gender neutral suffix, '''-nta''' may be used when the gender is unknown or ambiguous.
-== pronouns ==
-'''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. There is a special pronoun '''na'am''' which is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
-{{col-begin}}
-{{col-break}}
-Personal pronouns:
-* '''na''' - 1st person
-* '''ta''' - 2nd person
-* '''ha''' - 3rd person
-* '''tla''' - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for [[wp:Animacy|inanimate]] nouns)
-<small>''[[Kala/syllables#Personal_Pronouns|Here]] is a chart with all regular declensions of Kala pronouns.''</small>
-{{col-break}}
-Modifiers:
-* '''-m''' - plural
+=== determiners and demonstratives ===
-* '''-nku''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_pronoun|reciprocal]] (only attaches to plural pronouns)
-* '''e-''' - patient
-* '''-i''' - reflexive
-* '''-yo''' - possessive
-{{col-break}}
-Other pronouns include:
-* '''tlokua''' - everyone, everybody
-* '''kola''' - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
-* '''tlok''' - no one, nobody
-* '''nokua''' - everything
-* '''nola''' - something; whatever, anything
-* '''nok''' - nothing
-{{col-end}}
 == verbs ==
-Verbs in Kala are either active or or stative. Active verbs solely denote actions and occurrences and never states in Kala. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an attributive and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result.
+=== passive ===
-==== tense ====
-Kala has three simple tenses; past, present, and future. Present tense is unmarked. However, past ('''-ye''') and future ('''-tli''') tenses can be modified to include immediate future ("''is about to''..."), distant future ("''will...in a long while''"), recent past ("''just'' ..."), and remote past ("...''a long while ago''"). These distinctions are made with the augmentative and diminutive endings '''-ha''' and '''-hi'''.
-* The present tense can show immediacy by using the adverb '''ima''', "now; at this time":
-:'''ima mita ina''' - <small>now dog eat</small> - ''The dog is eating right now.''
-* If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted.
-:Example: '''yomaye nam ina''' - <small>yesterday 1pl eat</small> - We ate yesterday.
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
-|+ eme
-|-
-!
-! Kala
-! gloss
-! English
-|-
-! Present
-| '''mita ina''' || <small>dog eat</small> || ''The dog eats.''
-|-
-! Past
-| '''mita inaye''' || <small>dog eat-PST</small> || ''The dog ate.''
-|-
-! Recent Past
-| '''mita inayehi'''<br>or '''-hye''' || <small>dog eat-REC</small> || ''The dog just ate.''<br>(action just finished)
-|-
-! Remote Past
-| '''mita inayeha''' || <small>dog eat-REM</small> || ''The dog ate long ago.''<br>(before the lifetime of the speaker)
-|-
-! Future
-| '''mita inatli''' || <small>dog eat-FUT</small> || ''The dog will eat.''
-|-
-! Immediate Future
-| '''mita inatlihi'''<br>or '''-tlai''' || <small>dog eat-IMM</small> || ''The dog will eat soon.''<br>(within the day)
-|-
-! Distant Future
-| '''mita inatliha''' || <small>dog eat-DIS</small> || ''The dog will eat a long while from now.''<br>(months from now)
-|}
-==== aspect ====
-There are four aspects in Kala. The progressive, also called the [[Wikipedia:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|continuous]] ['''CONT'''], this is used to express an incomplete action or state in progress at a specific time. It is marked with '''-nko''', from '''nkoso''' - "to continue; proceed; progress". The [[Wikipedia:Perfective_aspect|perfective]] aspect indicates that an action is completed ['''PFV''']. It is often translated by the English present perfect (''have done some-thing''). It is marked with '''-pua''', from '''opua''' - "to end; finish; complete". The [[Wikipedia:Inchoative_aspect|inchoative]] aspect refers to the beginning of a state ['''INCH''']. It is marked with '''-mu''', from '''mula''' - "to begin; start; initiate". The [[Wikipedia:Frequentative|frequentative]]  aspect refers to a repeated action ['''FREQ''']. It is marked with '''-nua''', from '''nua''' - "frequent; often; regular".
+=== causative ===
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
+=== inceptive ===
-|+ ti'a
-|-
-!
-! Kala
-! gloss
-! English
-|-
-! Progressive
-| '''mita inanko''' || <small>dog eat-CONT</small> || ''The dog is eating.''
-|-
-! Perfective
-| '''mita inapua''' || <small>dog eat-PFV</small> || ''The dog has eaten.''
-|-
-! Inchoative
-| '''mita inamu''' || <small>dog eat-INCH</small> || ''The dog begins to eat.''
-|-
-! Frequentative
-| '''mita inanua''' || <small>dog eat-FREQ</small> || ''The dog eats often.''
-|}
-==== mood ====
+=== infinitive ===
-The negative mood (always marked finally) is indicated by the suffix –'''k''' or '''–nke''' (when the last syllable contains /k/).
+=== copula ===
-* '''mita inayek''' - <small>dog eat-PST-NEG</small> - ''The dog did not eat.''
+=== stative verbs ===
-* '''mita mokunke''' - <small>dog sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog does not sleep.''
-==== affix ordering ====
+= derivational morphology =
-Verbs can be marked with several suffixes to add or change meaning. The modals and tense affixes can be added in different order to a verb to create a new meaning…their placement is not always fixed. The negative, adjectival, and plural ending are always final, while other affixes can be varied, but in general they should be ordered:
+== nominalizers ==
-<tt>STEM-(SIZE/IMPORTANCE)-(MOOD)-(ASPECT)-(TENSE)-(NEGATIVE)</tt>
+== reduplication ==
-Example:
+== verbalizers ==
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
+= syntax =
-|+
-|-
-! Verb Stem
-! Size/Importance
-! Mood
-! Aspect
-! Tense
-! Negative
-|-
-| '''empa''' || '''-hi''' || '''-pa'''  || '''-nko''' || '''-ye''' || '''-k'''
-|-
-| run || DIM || ABIL || PROG  || PST || NEG
-|}
-* '''na empahipankoyek'''
+== word order ==
-: <small>1SG run-DIM-able-PROG-PST-NEG</small>
-: ''I was not able to keep jogging.''
-=== adjectives ===
+== case usage ==
-Kala does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives. This leaves open to interpretation many phrases.
-{{Col-begin}}
-{{Col-break}}
-* '''mita inya''' - <small>dog be.hungry</small>
-** ''The dog hungers.''
-** ''The dog is hungry.''
-** ''The hungry dog.''
-** ''A hungry dog.''
-{{Col-break}}
-* '''tsaka ketlahi''' - <small>house be.red-DIM</small>
-** ''The house is a little red.''
-** ''The light-red house.''
-** ''A pale red house.''
-{{Col-break}}
-* '''taki saua''' - <small>coat be.wet</small>
-** ''The coat is wet.''
-** ''The wet coat.''
-** ''A wet coat.''
-{{Col-break}}
-* '''umalo tahaku''' - <small>horse-PL be.big-extreme</small>
-** ''The horses are extremely large.''
-** ''The very big horses.''
-{{Col-end}}
-=== adpositionals ===
+== noun phrases ==
-Here are some common verbs used as [[wp:Preposition_and_postposition|adpositions]]:
-{{Col-begin}}
-{{Col-2}}
-* '''pahe''' - against; touching
-* '''pa'e''' - apart from; other than; except for
-* '''paye''' - beyond; exceeding; farther than
-* '''pue''' - after; back; behind; rear
-* '''tahe''' - below; beneath; under
-* '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at [moving toward]
-* '''kaye''' - around; encircling; surrounding
-* '''mahe''' - around; approximate; close to
-* '''ma'a''' - with [accompanied by / furnished with]
-* '''ma'e''' - before; in front
-* '''maye''' - between; among
-{{Col-2}}
-* '''nahe ''' - in [located inside of]; internal
-* '''nyaue''' - outside of; exterior to
-* '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
-* '''saye''' - along; following [a line]
-* '''hue / -hue''' - at [in the same location as] [LOC]
-* '''tsa'e''' - across; through
-* '''ua'e''' - above; over / on
-* '''uaye''' - from [moving out of or away from]
-* '''ya'e''' - near; close to
-* '''yomo''' - to the right of
-* '''yoso''' - to the left of
-{{Col-end}}
 == numbers ==
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
-|+ uku
-|-
-! Kala
-! number
-! English
-! Kala
-! number
-! English
-! Kala
-! number
-! English
-|-
-| '''ye'o''' || 0 || zero || '''tsa'o''' || 6 || six || '''nya'o''' || 500 || five hundred
-|-
-| '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''ka'o''' || 7 || seven || '''tle'o''' || 10<sup>3</sup> || (one) thousand
-|-
-| '''ta'o''' || 2 || two || '''pa'o''' || 8 || eight || '''mue'o''' || 10<sup>4</sup> || ten thousand
-|-
-| '''ha'o''' || 3 || three || '''sa'o''' || 9 || nine || '''kye'o''' || 10<sup>5</sup> || (one) hundred thousand
-|-
-| '''ma'o''' || 4 || four || '''ue'o''' || 10 || ten || '''nte'o''' || 10<sup>6</sup> || (one) million
-|-
-| '''ya'o''' || 5 || five || '''nye'o''' || 100 || (one) hundred || '''hue'o''' || 10<sup>9</sup> || (one) billion
-|}
-=== forming larger numbers ===
+== comparisons ==
-* '''uena'o''' - eleven / 11
+== prepositions ==
-* '''taue'o''' - twenty / 20
-* '''nyeka'o''' - one hundred seven / 107
-* '''hanyetauetsa'o''' (''long form'') / '''hatatsa'o''' (''short form'') - three hundred twenty six / 326
-* '''tsatletauema'o''' - six thousand and twenty four / 6024
-=== other number forms ===
+== tense usage ==
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
+== moods ==
-|+
-|-
-! Kala
-! number
-! English
-! ordinal
-! multiple
-! fractional
-|-
-| '''na'o''' || 1 || one  || '''kina'o'''<br>first || '''tina'o'''<br>once || -
-|-
-| '''ueta'o''' || 12 || twelve || '''kiueta'o'''<br>twelfth  || '''tiueta'o'''<br>twelve times || '''iueta'o'''<br>a twelfth
-|-
-| '''yauema'o'''<br>'''(yama'o)''' || 54 || fifty four  || '''kiyama'o'''<br>fifty fourth || '''tiyama'o'''<br>54 times || '''iyama'o'''<br>a fifty fourth
-|-
-| '''nyetsa'o''' || 106 || one hundred (and) six || '''kinyetsa'o'''<br>106<sup>th</sup> || '''tinyetsa'o'''<br>106 times || '''inyetsa'o'''<br>a 106<sup>th</sup>
-|-
-| '''katle'o''' || 7000 || seven thousand  || '''kikatle'o'''<br>seven thousandth || '''tikatle'o'''<br>7000 times || '''ikatle'o'''<br>1/7000
-|}
-= function words =
+== aspect ==
-== particles ==
+== conditionals ==
-== conjunctions ==
+== subordinate clauses ==
-== interjections ==
+== negatives ==
-= questions =
+== questions ==

User:Masako/pataka: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 07:37, 24 January 2022

introduction

phonology

consonants

free variation

Sound Changes

vowels

diphthongs

phonotactics

gemination

syllables

syllable chart

collating order

stress

orthography

morphology

nouns

pronouns

determiners and demonstratives

verbs

passive

causative

inceptive

infinitive

copula

stative verbs

derivational morphology

nominalizers

reduplication

verbalizers

syntax

word order

case usage

noun phrases

numbers

comparisons

prepositions

tense usage

moods

aspect

conditionals

subordinate clauses

negatives

questions

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