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| {{Kala 2}} | | {{Kala 2}} |
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| | {{wip}} |
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| | <big>'''THIS SECTION IS CURRENTLY BEING UPDATED TO REFLECT A NEW GRAMMAR.'''</big> |
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| The Kala conlang... | | The Kala conlang... |
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| * [[Kala/calendar|calendar]] | | * [[Kala/calendar|calendar]] |
| | * [[Kala/chat|conversations]] |
| | * [[Kala/etymology|etymology]] |
| | ** [[Kala/roots|roots]] |
| * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] | | * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] |
| | ** [[Kala/affixes|affixes]] |
| | ** [[Kala/lexicon/theme|thematic lexicon]] |
| | * [[Kala/particles|particles]] |
| * [[Kala/phrases|phrases]] | | * [[Kala/phrases|phrases]] |
| * [[Kala/syllables|syllables]]
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| * [[Kala/affixes|word formation]] | | * [[Kala/affixes|word formation]] |
| * [[Kala/writing|writing]] | | * [[Kala/writing|writing]] |
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| = Introduction =
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| == Word Order ==
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| == Borrowing ==
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| Kala borrows extensively from various natural languages. This is a very small sample of borrowings:
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| * '''kala''' – ''to speak, talk, converse''; from Arabic [''takallama'']
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| * '''na''' – ''I, me''; from Arabic [''ʾanā'']
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| * '''pato''' – ''duck (Anatidae)''; from Spanish [''pato'']
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| * '''tsenka''' – ''orange''; from Chinese [''chéng'']
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| * '''uasi''' – ''to take, get, acquire''; from Lakota [''wasichu'']
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| * '''myonta''' – ''to allow, permit''; from Finnish [''myöntää'']
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| * '''a''' – ''to be, exist, yes''; from Japanese [''aru'']
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| == Parts of Speech ==
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| '''Kala''' has three parts of speech, each with several subgroups. Nouns and verbs are substantive, while particles tend to be only functional.
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| # '''noma''' - nouns
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| ## '''nkalo''' - personal pronouns
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| ## '''uatse''' - demonstratives
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| # '''uati''' - verbs
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| ## '''pusa''' - adverbials
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| ## '''tatse''' - locative verbs (prepositions)
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| ## '''keyo''' - descriptive verbs (adjectives)
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| # '''peya''' - particles
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| ## '''nita''' - interjections
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| ## '''eka''' - affixes
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| = Phonology =
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| == Consonants ==
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| {|class=wikitable style="text-align: center; width:60%;"
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| |+Consonants
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| !rowspan=2|
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| !rowspan=2|Labial
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| !colspan=2|Alveolar
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| !rowspan=2|Palatal
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| !rowspan=2|Velar
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| !rowspan=2|Glottal
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| |-style="font-size: x-small;"
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| !central
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| !lateral
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| |-
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| ! Nasal
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| |m ('''m''')||n ('''n''')|| ||ɲ ('''ny''')|| ||
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| |-
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| ! Plosive
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| |p~b ('''p''')||t~d ('''t''')|| || ||k~g ('''k''')||ʔ ('''`''')
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| |-
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| ! Affricate
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| | ||ts ('''ts''')||t͡ɬ~tl ('''tl''')||t͡ʃ ('''ts''')|| ||
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| |-
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| ! Continuant
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| | ||s ('''s''')||l~ɾ ('''l''')||ʃ ('''s''')|| ||h~ɦ ('''h''')
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| |-
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| ! Semivowel
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| | || || ||j ('''y''')||w ('''u''')||
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| |}
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| * '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
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| * '''Labialized''':/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
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| * '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/
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| <small>Note: Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short.</small>
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| == Vowels ==
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |+Vowels
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| !
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| !Front
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| !Central
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| !Back
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| !Close
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| |i || || u
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| !Mid
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| |e || || o
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| |- style="text-align:center;"
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| !Open
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| | || a ||
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| |}
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| '''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
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| === Diphthongs ===
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| Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] and [aʊ̯], but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa], [we], [ja], [je], and [jo]. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] and [jaʊ̯] are very rare but should be noted as possible.
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| == Phonotactics ==
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| === Syllable Structure ===
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| '''Kala''' syllable structure is (('''N''')'''C''')(''y, u'')'''V'''('''F'''). As in most languages, CV is the most common syllable type, accounting for the majority of '''Kala''' lemmas. The finals /n/, /m/, and /k/ are grammatical and indicate adverbs, plurals, and negatives, respectively. They only occur word finally. So, '''nkapa''' (alcohol) is permitted, but ''nakpa'' is not; '''kyopo''' (fear) is acceptable, but ''koypo'' is not, etc. There is a limited set of syllables allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. They are listed here: [[:File:Kalasyl.png|Syllable Chart]], or [[Kala/syllables|here]].
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| * Only /l/ cannot occur word initially (except in loan words and toponyms).
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| = Morphology =
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| == Nouns ==
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| === Number ===
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| ==== general plural ====
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| Kala does not require the plural be marked if it is understood through context, and only inanimate pronouns are marked, whereas inanimate nouns need not be marked. General plurals are formed with –'''m''' (or –'''lo''' if the final syllable contains '''m''').
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| * '''mita / mitam''' - dog / dogs
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| * '''kuma / kumalo''' - bear / bears
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| ==== mass nouns ====
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| Mass nouns include liquids, powders, and substances, such as '''maya''' (water), '''hyeka''' (sand), and '''tleno''' (wood). They do not normally require determiners or the plural. However, one may add these to indicate specific examples or different types:
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| * '''tlenom''' – woods (e.g. various kinds)
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| * '''mayam''' - waters (e.g. various locations)
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| ==== collective ====
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| The collective plural is marked by '''tli'''-, derived from '''tatli''', meaning ''group; collection; gathering''. It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the collective plural ('''COL''').
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| * '''mita''' – dog / '''tlimita''' – pack of dogs
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| * '''yama''' – mountain / '''tliyamalo''' – mountain range
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| * '''tsaka''' – house / '''tlitsaka''' – neighborhood
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| * '''puku''' – clothing / '''tlipuku''' – wardrobe
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| ==== other quantifiers ====
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| === Personal Pronouns ===
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| '''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. '''Kala''' personal pronouns also encode clusivity. That is, there are different words for "we" depending on whether the speaker is including the person spoken to or not. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
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| |+ nkalo
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| |-
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| !
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| ! Agent
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| ! Patient
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| ! Reflexive
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| ! Possessive
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| ! Reciprocal
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| |-
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| ! 1sg
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| | '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''na'i''' || '''nayo''' ||
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| |-
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| ! 2sg
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| | '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''ta'i''' || '''tayo''' ||
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| |-
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| ! 3sg
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| | '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''ha'i''' || '''hayo''' ||
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| |-
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| ! 4sg
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| | '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tla'i''' || '''tlayo''' ||
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| |-
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| ! 1pl<br>1pl exclusive
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| | '''nam'''<br>'''na'am''' || '''enam'''<br>'''ena'am''' || '''nami'''<br>'''na'ami''' || '''namyo'''<br>'''na'amyo''' || '''nanku'''<br>'''na'anku'''
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| |-
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| ! 2pl
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| | '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tami''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tanku'''
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| |-
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| ! 3pl
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| | '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kami''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kanku'''
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| |-
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| ! 4pl
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| | '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlanku'''
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| |}
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| === Demonstratives ===
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
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| |+ uatse
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| !
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| ! Proximal<br>'''i-'''
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| ! Medial<br>'''ua-'''
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| ! Distal<br>'''ye-'''
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| ! Inclusive<br>'''-kua'''
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| ! Negative<br>'''-k'''
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| ! Indefinite<br>'''-la'''
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| |-
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| ! mo<br>''place''
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| | '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemua'''<br>over there || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>somewhere; anywhere
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| |-
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| ! ko<br>''person''
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| | '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person<br>(over there) || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>someone; anyone
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| |-
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| ! uku<br>''amount''
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| | '''iku'''<br>this much || '''uaku'''<br>that much || '''-''' || '''kua'''<br>all; every|| '''ok'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>some; any
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| ! ama<br>''time''
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| | '''ima'''<br>now, at present || '''uama'''<br>then; at that time || '''-''' || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>sometime; anytime
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| ! so<br>''kind, type''
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| | '''iso'''<br>this kind || '''so'o'''<br>that kind || '''yeso'''<br>that kind<br>(over there) || '''sokua'''<br>all kinds || '''sok'''<br>no kind (at all) || '''sola'''<br>some/any kind
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| |-
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| ! no<br>''thing''
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| | '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that<br>(over there) || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''nok'''<br>nothing; none || '''nola'''<br>something; anything
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| |-
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| ! to<br>''manner, way''
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| | '''yoto'''<br>thus; like this; this way|| '''uato'''<br>that way || '''ato'''<br>that way<br>(over there) || '''tokua'''<br>every way || '''tok'''<br>no way || '''tola'''<br>somehow; anyway
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| |}
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| == Verbs ==
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| === Tense ===
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| Kala has three simple tenses; past, present, and future. Present tense is unmarked. However, past and future tenses can be modified to include immediate future ("is about to..."), distant future ("will...in a long while"), recent past ("just ..."), and remote past ("...a long while ago"). These distinctions are made with the augmentative and diminutive endings '''-ha''' and '''-hi'''.
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:500px;"
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| ! tense || suffix || gloss || example
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| | remote past || '''-yeha''' || REM || '''nam inayeha'''<br>We ate a long while ago.
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| |-
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| | recent past || '''-yehi''' || REC || '''nam inayehi'''<br>We just ate.
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| |-
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| | past || '''-ye''' || PST || '''nam inaye'''<br>We ate.
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| |-
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| | present || ''not marked'' || || '''nam ina'''<br>We eat. / We are eating. / We do eat.
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| |-
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| | future || '''-tli''' || FUT || '''nam inatli'''<br>We will eat.
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| |-
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| | immediate future || '''-tlihi''' || IMM || '''nam inatlihi'''<br>We will eat soon/now.
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| |-
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| | distant future || '''-tliha''' || DIS || '''nam inatliha'''<br>We will eat a long while from now.
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| |}
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| * Kala does not distinguish perfect and imperfect aspects of the verb (e.g. "I ate", "I used to eat", "I have eaten", "I had eaten").
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| * If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted.
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| :Example: '''yomaye nam ina''' - <tt>yesterday 1pl eat</tt> - We ate yesterday.
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| ==== present ====
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| The present tense can show immediacy by using the adverb '''ima''', "now; at this time".
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| * '''mita ina''' - <small>dog eat</small> - ''The dog eats.''
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| * '''ima mita ina''' - <small>now dog eat</small> - ''The dog is eating right now.''
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| ==== past ====
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| The past tense is marked with '''-ye''', from '''aye''' - "it was".
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| * '''mita inaye''' - <small>dog eat-PST</small> - ''The dog ate.''
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| * '''mita inayeha''' - <small>dog eat-PST-AUG</small> - ''The dog ate a long while ago.''
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| * '''mita inayehi''' - <small>dog eat-PST-DIM</small> - ''The dog just ate.''
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| :: can be marked with '''-hye'''
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| ==== future ====
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| The future tense is marked with '''-tli''', from '''atli''' - "it will be".
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| * '''mita inatli''' - <small>dog eat-FUT</small> - ''The dog will eat.''
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| * '''mita inatliha''' - <small>dog eat-FUT-AUG</small> - ''The dog will eat in a long while.''
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| * '''mita inatlihi''' - <small>dog eat-FUT-DIM</small> - ''The dog is about to eat (will eat soon).''
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| :: can be marked with '''-tlai''' {except when followed by a modal affix)
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| === Aspect ===
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| ==== progressive ====
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| Also called the continuous [CONT], this is used to express an incomplete action or state in progress at a specific time. It is marked with '''-nko''', from '''nkoso''' - "to continue; proceed; progress".
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| * '''mita inanko''' - <small>dog eat-CONT</small> - ''The dog is eating.''
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| * '''mita inankoye''' - <small>dog eat-CONT-PST</small> - ''The dog was eating.''
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| * '''mita inankotli''' - <small>dog eat-CONT-FUT</small> - ''The dog will be eating.''
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| ==== perfective ====
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| This aspect indicates that an action is completed [PFV]. It is often translated by the English present perfect (''have done some-thing''). It is marked with '''-pua''', from '''opua''' - "to end; finish; complete".
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| * '''mita inapua''' - <small>dog eat-PFV</small> - ''The dog has eaten.''
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| * '''mita inapuaye''' - <small>dog eat-PFV-PST</small> - ''The dog had eaten.''
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| * '''mita inapuatli''' - <small>dog eat-PFV-FUT</small> - ''The dog will have eaten.''
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| ==== inchoative ====
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| This aspect refers to the beginning of a state [INCH]. It is marked with '''-mu''', from '''mula''' - "to begin; start; initiate".
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| * '''mita inamu''' - <small>dog eat-INCH</small> - ''The dog is beginning to eat.''
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| * '''mita inamuye''' - <small>dog eat-INCH-PST</small> - ''The dog started to eat.''
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| * '''mita inamutli''' - <small>dog eat-INCH-FUT</small> - ''The dog will begin to eat''
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| ==== frequentative ====
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| This aspect refers to a repeated action [FREQ]. It is marked with '''-nua''', from '''nua''' - "frequent; often; regular".
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| * '''mita inanua''' - <small>dog eat-FREQ</small> - ''The dog eats often.''
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| * '''mita inanuaye''' - <small>dog eat-FREQ-PST</small> - ''The dog ate regularly.''
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| * '''mita inanuatli''' - <small>dog eat-FREQ-FUT</small> - ''The dog will eat often.''
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| === Mood ===
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| ==== negative ====
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| The negative mood (always marked finally) is indicated by the suffix –'''k''' or '''–nke''' (when the last syllable contains /k/).
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| * '''mita inayek''' - <small>dog eat-PST-NEG</small> - ''The dog did not eat.''
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| * '''mita mokunke''' - <small>dog sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog does not sleep.''
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| == Particles ==
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| === Conjunctions ===
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| === Function words ===
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| === Interjections ===
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| = Syntax =
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|
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| The basic structure of a '''Kala''' sentence is:
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| AGENT--PATIENT--VERB
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| The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:
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| * '''mita tlaka anya''' - <small>dog man see</small> - ''The dog sees the man.''
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| * '''tlaka mita anya''' - <small>man dog see</small> - ''The man sees the dog.''
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| In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.
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| == Comparisons ==
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| When things being compared have equal characteristics, the comparison of equality is used.
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| * '''mita kue tahi taha''' - <small>dog like boy big</small> - ''The dog is as big as the boy.''
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| * '''mpa'a kue mosa niha''' - <small>movie like book nice</small> - ''The movie is as good as the book.''
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| If two things are not equal, they are unequal.
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| * We are not the same height.
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| * You are taller than I.
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| * The two items do not cost the same.
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| * The camera is more expensive than the television.
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| == Questions ==
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| There are two types of questions: Polar, those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers. Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.
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| * '''mita ina''' - <small>dog eat</small> - ''The dog eats.''
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| ** '''mita ina ka''' - <small>dog eat Q</small> - ''Does the dog eat?''
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| The other type of question contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':
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| * '''ke mita ina ka''' - <small>O dog eat Q</small> - ''What does the dog eat?''
| | [[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Conscripts]][[Category:Kala]] |
| * '''ko ina ka''' - <small>person eat Q</small> - ''Who eats?''
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| * '''koyo mita ina ka''' - <small>person-POSS dog eat Q</small> - ''Whose dog eats?''
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| * '''to mita ina ka''' - <small>manner dog eat Q</small> - ''How does the dog eat?''
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| * '''mo mita ina ka''' - <small>place dog eat Q</small> - ''Where does the dog eat?''
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| * '''nye mita ina ka''' - <small>reason dog eat Q</small> - ''Why does the dog eat?''
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| * '''ama mita ina ka''' - <small>time dog eat Q</small> - ''When does the dog eat?''
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| * '''uku mita ina ka''' - <small>amount dog eat Q</small> - ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
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