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| {{Kala 2}} | | {{Kala 2}} |
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| *'''Kala''' is meant to be a simple and euphonic personal conlang.
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| *Many lexical entries are inspired/influenced/borrowed by/from any number of natlangs
| | <big>'''THIS SECTION IS CURRENTLY BEING UPDATED TO REFLECT A NEW GRAMMAR.'''</big> |
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| == Phonology ==
| | The Kala conlang... |
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| === consonants ===
| | * [[Kala/calendar|calendar]] |
| | * [[Kala/chat|conversations]] |
| | * [[Kala/etymology|etymology]] |
| | ** [[Kala/roots|roots]] |
| | * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] |
| | ** [[Kala/affixes|affixes]] |
| | ** [[Kala/lexicon/theme|thematic lexicon]] |
| | * [[Kala/particles|particles]] |
| | * [[Kala/phrases|phrases]] |
| | * [[Kala/affixes|word formation]] |
| | * [[Kala/writing|writing]] |
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| * Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[Wikipedia:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
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| *Plosives
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| :'''p''' - [p~b] | '''t''' - [t~d] | '''k''' - [k~g] | ''' ' ''' - [?]
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| *Nasals
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| :'''m''' - [m] | '''n''' - [n] | '''ny''' - [J]
| | [[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Conscripts]][[Category:Kala]] |
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| *Fricatives
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| :'''s''' - [s~S] | '''h''' - [h~h\] | |
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| *Africates
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| :'''ts''' - [ts~tS] | '''tl''' - [tK]
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| *Approximants
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| :'''u''' - [w] | '''l''' - [l] | '''y''' - [j]
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| === vowels ===
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| * '''a''' - /a~a:/ | '''e''' - /e~e:/ | '''i''' - /i~i:/ | '''o''' - /o~o:/ | '''u''' - /u~u:/
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| ==== diphthongs ====
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| * '''ya''' - /ja:/ | '''ye''' - /je:/ | '''yo''' - /jo:/ | '''ua''' - /wa:/ | '''ue''' - /we:/
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| * '''ai''' - /aI:/ | '''ao''' - /aU:/ | '''uai''' - /waI:/ | '''yao''' - /jaU:/
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| === phonotactics ===
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| *'''Kala''' allows only a single consonant at the start or end of a syllable (the exception being prenasalization), and up to two consonants word medially across a syllable boundary.
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| :'''l''' cannot appear as an onset, the glottal stop, ''' ' ''', only appears between vowels.
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| ==== syllable structure ====
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| * (N)(CV)(k, m, n)
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| ::Prenasalization primarily occurs with '''k''', '''t''' and '''p'''. (''See also'': [[Kala writing|Moya]])
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| ==== syllable stress ====
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| *'''Kala''' stress is penultimate; that is, the next-to-last syllable of the word is stressed.
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| == Grammar ==
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| === word order ===
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| * The usual, declarative formal word order is ''subject noun phrase - (object noun phrase) - verb phrase''.
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| :Example : He/She is preparing food.
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| ::'''ha ina yaso'''
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| :::''3sg food/eat prepare/ready''
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| * The "indirect object" exists only in the form of a prepositional phrase, and follows the object noun phrase.
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| :Example : The woman gives the house to me.
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| ::'''naka ka'e na ke tsaka yeta'''
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| :::''woman to/at 1sg the/a house give''
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| :* This construction changes when both the subject (agent) and (indirect)/object (patient) are personal pronouns. In this case, the preposition/al (phrase) is unnecessary.
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| :Example : She gives the house to me.
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| ::'''ha'ena ke tsaka yeta'''
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| :::''3sg-TR-part-1sg the/a house give''
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| * A chart of the agent-patient transitivity constructions;
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| {| class="wikitable" border=1
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| |+ '''A-P''' ''construction''
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| ! !! ''1<sup>st</sup> sing'' !! ''2<sup>nd</sup> sing'' !! ''3<sup>rd</sup> sing'' !! ''1<sup>st</sup> plu'' !! ''2<sup>nd</sup> plu'' !! ''3<sup>rd</sup> plu''
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''1<sup>st</sup> sing''
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| || '''-''' || na'eta || na'eha || '''-''' || na'etam || na'ekam
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''2<sup>nd</sup> sing''
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| || ta'ena || '''-''' || ta'eha || ta'enam || '''-''' || ta'ekam
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''3<sup>rd</sup> sing''
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| || ha'ena || ha'eta || '''-''' || ha'enam || ha'etam || ha'ekam
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''1<sup>st</sup> plu''
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| || '''-''' || nameta || nameha || '''-''' || nametam || namekam
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''2<sup>nd</sup> plu''
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| || tamena || '''-''' || tameha || tamenam || '''-''' || tamekam
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''3<sup>rd</sup> plu''
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| || kamena || kameta || kameha || kamenam || kametam || '''-'''
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| |-
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| |}
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| === verbs ===
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| ==== tense ====
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| *The present tense is indicated by the basic form.
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| :'''ha apua'''
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| ::''3SG sing''
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| :::He/She sings.
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| *The simple past tense is indicated by the suffix '''-ye'''.
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| :'''ha apuaye'''
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| ::''3SG sing-PAST''
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| :::He/She sang.
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| *The simple future tense is indicated by the suffix '''-tli'''.
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| :'''ha apuatli'''
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| ::''3SG sing-FUT''
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| :::He/She will sing.
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| *The tense may be left out if it is clearly indicated by another word in the same sentence, or when telling a story (the "historical" tense).
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| :'''ha yomatli apua'''
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| ::''3SG day-FUT sing''
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| :::He/She will sing tomorrow.
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| :'''ha semaye apua'''
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| ::''3SG week-PAST sing''
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| :::He/She sang last week.
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| ==== mood ====
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| * Moods are indicated by affixes appended to verbs in all tenses.
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| *The negative mood is indicated by the suffix '''-k'''.
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| :'''kam inak'''
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| ::''3PL eat-NEG''
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| :::They are not eating. / They do not eat.
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| *The volitive mood is indicated by the suffix '''-ue''' (from '''ueha''' - to want, desire).
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| :'''nam tsomaueye'''
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| ::''1PL smoke-VOL-PAST''
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| :::We wanted to smoke.
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| *The necessitative mood is indicated by the suffix '''-he''' (from '''heta''' - to need, require).
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| :'''ta simahetlik'''
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| ::''2S sit-NEC-FUT-NEG''
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| :::You will not need to sit.
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| *The abilitative mood is indicated by the suffix '''-pa''' (from '''pala''' - to be able).
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| :'''na mokupa'''
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| ::''1S sleep-ABIL''
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| :::I can sleep. / I am able to sleep.
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| === nouns ===
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| ==== affect/degree ====
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| * The diminutive is formed with '''-hi''', and the augmentative with '''-ha'''. These are respectively realized as '''-ki''' and '''-ka''' when attached to a word that has a final syllable containing '''h''' or '''y'''.
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| :Example : '''ina''' - food, meal | '''inahi''' - snack, morsel | '''inaha''' - feast, banquet
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| :Example : '''tsaka''' - house, home, dwelling | '''tsakahi''' - shack, hut, cabin | '''tsakaha''' - palace, mansion
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| * These are also used to differentiate hue, or shade.
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| :Example : '''yanahi''' - light yellow, '''kuyaha''' - dark green
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| * In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective are merged into a single form, the elative. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
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| :Example : '''tahaka''' - bigger/biggest | '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka''' - His house is bigger than mine.
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| :Example : '''yanaha''' - more yellow/most yellow | '''ke huam tayo yanaha''' - Your flowers are the most yellow.
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| ==== plurals ====
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| * Concrete nouns are pluralized by suffixing '''-m'''.
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| :Examples : '''kono''' - stone > '''konom''' - stones | '''naka''' - woman > '''nakam''' - women
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| * When the last syllable of a word contains an '''m''', the plural is marked by reduplicating the final vowel.
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| :Examples : '''kama''' - village > '''kama'a''' - villages | '''yama''' - mountain > '''yama'a''' - mountains
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| * Collective (plural) nouns are marked by prefixing '''tli-'''.
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| :Examples : '''tsaka''' - house > '''tlitsaka''' - neighborhood | '''yama''' - mountain > '''tliyama''' - mountain range
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| * Nouns need not be marked plural if a number is used to show quantity.
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| :Example : '''sahi''' - color > '''sahim''' - colors > '''sahi ya'o''' - five color(s)
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| * Adjectives do not show plural agreement. However, when an adjective is used nominally, it can be pluralized.
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| :Example : '''nyeli''' - pink > '''nyelim''' - (the) pink (ones)
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| ==== gender ====
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| *In general, nouns do not indicate their gender. To distinguish the sexes, one can use the adjectival endings '''-ta''' and '''-na'''.
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| :Example : '''nikata''' "a male dog", '''nikana''' "a female dog".
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| ==== articles ====
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| *There is only one article in '''Kala''', '''ke'''. It is used primarily as a "noun marker".
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| *It is ambi-definite, meaning it can be either definite or indefinite. The distinction is made through context.
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| :Example : '''kama''' "village", '''ke kama''' "the/a village", '''ke kama'a''' "the villages"
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| :Example : '''inahi''' "snack", '''ke inahi''' "the/a snack", '''ke inahim''' "the snacks"
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| === questions ===
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| *When asking questions in '''Kala''', the idea, or concept, is the ''subject'', and the entire construction is followed by the interrogative particle '''ka'''.
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| *'''ama...ka''' - when, lit: ''time...INT''
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| *'''ko...ka''' - who, lit: ''person [Agentive]...INT''
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| *'''koyo...ka''' - whose, lit: ''person-POSS...INT''
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| *'''nye...ka''' - why, lit: ''reason...INT''
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| *'''no...ka''' - what, lit: ''thing [Instrument]...INT''
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| *'''mo...ka''' - where, lit: ''place...INT''
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| *'''to...ka''' - how, what manner, lit: ''manner/method...INT''
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| *'''ku / o...ka''' - how much/many, lit: ''number/amount...INT''
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| ==== examples ====
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| *'''ama nam yalatli ka'''
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| :''time 1PL go-FUT INT''
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| :When will we go?
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| *'''ko ke tlaka ka'''
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| :''person that man INT''
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| :Who is that man?
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| *'''nye kam hina ka'''
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| :''reason 3PL here INT''
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| :Why are they here?
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| *'''no a ka''' / '''itla ka'''
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| :''thing be INT'' / ''this INT''
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| :What is this?
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| *'''koyo kama ke yama hina ka'''
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| :''person-POSS village the mountain near INT''
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| :Whose village is near the mountain?
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| *'''mo satila nayo ka'''
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| :''place sandwich 1SG-POSS INT''
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| :Where is my sandwich?
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| *'''to nam yalatli ka'''
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| :''manner 1PL travel-FUT INT''
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| :How will we travel?
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| *'''ku ekam yetaye ka'''
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| :''amount TR-3PL give-PAST INT''
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| :How many were they given?
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| === pronouns ===
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| {| class="wikitable" border=1
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| |-
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| ! !! ''Nominative'' !! ''Accusative'' !! ''Possessive'' !! ''Reflexive'' !! ''Reciprocal''
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''1<sup>st</sup> sing''
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| || na || ena || nayo || na'i || ''' '''
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''2<sup>nd</sup> sing''
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| || ta || eta ||tayo || ta'i || ''' '''
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''3<sup>rd</sup> sing''
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| || ha || eha || hayo || ha'i || ''' '''
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''1<sup>st</sup> plu''
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| || nam || enam || namyo || nami || nanku
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''1<sup>st</sup> plu'' (EXCL)
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| || na'am || ena'am || na'amyo || na'ami || na'anku
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''2<sup>nd</sup> plu''
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| || tam || etam || tamyo || tami || tanku
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''3<sup>rd</sup> plu''
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| || kam || ekam || kamyo || kami || kanku
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| |-
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| |}
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| ==== examples ====
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| *'''ina namyo'''
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| :''food 1PL-POSS''
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| :Our food.
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| *'''kami itsa'''
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| :''3PL-REFL love''
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| :They love themselves.
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| *'''tanku moto ka'''
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| :''2PL-RECP remember INT''
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| :Do you remember each other?
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| *'''eha unyatlik'''
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| :''ACC-3SG understand-FUT-NEG''
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| :He/She will not be understood.
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| === Article 1, UDHR ===
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| ''' '''
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| == Index ==
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| {{Kala index}}
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| [[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Kala]] | |
