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| {{Kala 2}} | | {{Kala 2}} |
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| __NOTOC__
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| *'''Kala''' is meant to be a simple and euphonic personal conlang.
| | <big>'''THIS SECTION IS CURRENTLY BEING UPDATED TO REFLECT A NEW GRAMMAR.'''</big> |
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| *Many lexical entries are inspired/influenced/borrowed by/from any number of natlangs
| | The Kala conlang... |
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| == Phonology ==
| | * [[Kala/calendar|calendar]] |
| | * [[Kala/chat|conversations]] |
| | * [[Kala/etymology|etymology]] |
| | ** [[Kala/roots|roots]] |
| | * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] |
| | ** [[Kala/affixes|affixes]] |
| | ** [[Kala/lexicon/theme|thematic lexicon]] |
| | * [[Kala/particles|particles]] |
| | * [[Kala/phrases|phrases]] |
| | * [[Kala/affixes|word formation]] |
| | * [[Kala/writing|writing]] |
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| === consonants ===
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| * Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[Wikipedia:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
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| *Plosives
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| :'''p''' - [p~b] | '''t''' - [t~d] | '''k''' - [k~g] | ''' ' ''' - [?]
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| *Nasals
| | [[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Conscripts]][[Category:Kala]] |
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| :'''m''' - [m] | '''n''' - [n] | '''ny''' - [J]
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| *Fricatives
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| :'''s''' - [s~S] | '''h''' - [h~h\] | |
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| *Africates
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| :'''ts''' - [ts~tS] | '''tl''' - [tK]
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| *Approximants
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| :'''u''' - [w] | '''l''' - [l] | '''y''' - [j]
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| === clusters ===
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| * '''ky''' - [k_j]
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| * '''mp''' - [mp]
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| * '''mh''' - [m_h\]
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| * '''my''' - [m_j]
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| * '''nt''' - [nt]
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| * '''nk''' - [Nk]
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| * '''nh''' - [n_h\]
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| * '''lh''' - [l_h\]
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| * '''ly''' - [l_j]
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| === vowels ===
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| * '''a''' - /a~a:/ | '''e''' - /e~e:/ | '''i''' - /i~i:/ | '''o''' - /o~o:/ | '''u''' - /u~u:/
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| ==== diphthongs ====
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| * '''ua''' - /wa:/ | '''ue''' - /we:/
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| === phonotactics ===
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| *'''Kala''' allows only a single consonant at the start or end of a syllable, and up to two consonants word medially across a syllable boundary.
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| :'''l''' cannot appear as an onset, the glottal stop, ''' ' ''', only appears between vowels.
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| ==== syllable structure ====
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| * (C)V(k, m, n)
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| ==== syllable stress ====
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| *'''Kala''' stress is penultimate; that is, the next-to-last syllable of the word is stressed.
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| == Grammar ==
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| === word order ===
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| * The usual, declarative formal word order is ''subject noun phrase - (object noun phrase) - verb phrase''.
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| :Example : He/She is preparing food.
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| ::'''ha ina yaso'''
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| :::''3sg food/eat prepare/ready''
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| * The "indirect object" exists only in the form of a prepositional phrase, and follows the object noun phrase.
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| :Example : The woman gives the house to me.
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| ::'''naka ke tsaka ika na yeta'''
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| :::''woman the/a house to/at 1sg give''
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| :* This construction changes when both the subject (agent) and (indirect)/object (patient) are personal pronouns. In this case, the preposition/al (phrase) is unnecessary.
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| :Example : She gives the house to me.
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| ::'''ha'ena ke tsaka yeta'''
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| :::''3sg-TR-part-1sg the/a house give''
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| * A chart of the agent-patient transitivity constructions;
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| {| class="wikitable" border=1
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| |+ '''A-P''' ''construction''
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| ! !! ''1<sup>st</sup> sing'' !! ''2<sup>nd</sup> sing'' !! ''3<sup>rd</sup> sing'' !! ''1<sup>st</sup> plu'' !! ''2<sup>nd</sup> plu'' !! ''3<sup>rd</sup> plu''
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''1<sup>st</sup> sing''
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| || '''-''' || na'eta || na'eha || '''-''' || na'etam || na'ekam
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''2<sup>nd</sup> sing''
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| || ta'ena || '''-''' || ta'eha || ta'enam || '''-''' || ta'ekam
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''3<sup>rd</sup> sing''
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| || ha'ena || ha'eta || '''-''' || ha'enam || ha'etam || ha'ekam
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''1<sup>st</sup> plu''
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| || '''-''' || nameta || nameha || '''-''' || nametam || namekam
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''2<sup>nd</sup> plu''
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| || tamena || '''-''' || tameha || tamenam || '''-''' || tamekam
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''3<sup>rd</sup> plu''
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| || kamena || kameta || kameha || kamenam || kametam || '''-'''
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| |-
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| |}
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| === verbs ===
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| ==== tense ====
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| *The present tense is indicated by the basic form.
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| :'''ha apua'''
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| ::''3SG sing''
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| :::He/She sings.
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| *The simple past tense is indicated by the suffix '''-ye'''.
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| :'''ha apuaye'''
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| ::''3SG sing-PAST''
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| :::He/She sang.
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| *The simple future tense is indicated by the suffix '''-tli'''.
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| :'''ha apuatli'''
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| ::''3SG sing-FUT''
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| :::He/She will sing.
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| *The tense may be left out if it is clearly indicated by another word in the same sentence, or when telling a story (the "historical" tense).
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| :'''ha yomatli apua'''
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| ::''3SG day-FUT sing''
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| :::He/She will sing tomorrow.
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| :'''ha semaye apua'''
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| ::''3SG week-PAST sing''
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| :::He/She sang last week.
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| ==== mood ====
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| *The negative mood is indicated by the suffix '''-k''', it is affixed in all tenses.
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| :'''kam inak'''
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| ::''3PL eat-NEG''
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| :::They are not eating. / They do not eat.
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| :'''kam inayek'''
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| ::''3PL eat-PAST-NEG''
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| :::They did not eat.
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| :'''kam inatlik'''
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| ::''3PL eat-FUT-NEG''
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| :::They will not eat.
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| === nouns ===
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| ==== degree ====
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| * The diminutive is formed with '''hi-''' or '''-hi''' on words that begin with a vowel, and the augmentative with '''-ha'''.
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| :Example : '''ina''' - food, meal | '''inahi''' - snack, morsel | '''inaha''' - feast, banquet
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| :Example : '''tsaka''' - house, home, dwelling | '''hitsaka''' - shack, hut, cabin | '''tsakaha''' - palace, mansion
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| * These are also used to differentiate hue, or shade.
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| :Example : '''hiyana''' - light yellow, '''kuyaha''' - dark green
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| ==== plurals ====
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| * To make a noun plural, add '''-m''' to the end, or '''-im''' for words ending in a consonant.
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| :Example : '''kono''' - stone | '''konom''' - stones
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| * Nouns need not be marked plural if a number is used to show quantity.
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| :Example : '''sahi''' - color, '''sahim''' - colors, '''sahi ya'o''' - five color(s)
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| *Adjectives do not change when they are plural. However, when an adjective is used in place of a noun, it can be pluralized.
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| :Example : '''nyeli''' - pink | '''nyelim''' - (the) pink (ones)
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| ==== gender ====
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| *In general, nouns do not indicate their gender. To distinguish the sexes, one can use the adjectival endings '''-ta''' and '''-na'''.
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| :Example : '''nikata''' "a male dog", '''nikana''' "a female dog".
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| ==== articles ====
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| *There is only one article in '''Kala''', '''ke'''. It is used primarily as a "noun marker".
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| *It is ambi-definite, meaning it can be either definite or indefinite. The distinction is made through context.
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| :Example : '''kama''' "village", '''ke kama''' "the/a village", '''ke kamam''' "the villages"
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| :Example : '''inahi''' "snack", '''ke inahi''' "the/a snack", '''ke inahim''' "the snacks"
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| === questions ===
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| *When asking questions in '''Kala''', the idea, or concept, is the ''subject'', and the entire construction is followed by the interrogative particle '''ka'''.
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| *'''ama...ka''' - when, lit: ''time...INT''
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| *'''ko...ka''' - who, lit: ''person [Agentive]...INT''
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| *'''nye...ka''' - why, lit: ''reason...INT''
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| *'''to...ka''' - what, lit: ''thing [Instrument]...INT''
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| *'''koyo...ka''' - whose, lit: ''person-POSS...INT''
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| *'''mo...ka''' - where, lit: ''place...INT''
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| *'''no...ka''' - how, what manner, lit: ''manner/method...INT''
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| *'''ko'o...ka''' - how much/many, lit: ''number/amount...INT''
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| ==== examples ====
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| *'''ama nam yalatli ka'''
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| :''time 1PL go-FUT INT''
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| ::When will we go?
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| *'''ko ke tlaka ka'''
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| :''person the/that man INT''
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| ::Who is that man?
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| *'''nye kam hina ka'''
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| :''reason 3PL here INT''
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| ::Why are they here?
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| *'''to a ka'''
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| :''thing be INT''
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| ::What is this?
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| *'''koyo kama ke yama hina ka'''
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| :''person-POSS village the mountain near INT''
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| ::Whose village is near the mountain?
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| *'''mo nayo satila ka'''
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| :''place 1SG-POSS sandwich INT''
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| ::Where is my sandwich?
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| *'''no nam yalatli ka'''
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| :''manner 1PL travel-FUT INT''
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| ::How will we travel?
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| *'''ko'o ekam yetaye ka'''
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| :''number/amount TR-3PL give-PAST INT''
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| ::How many were they given?
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| === pronouns ===
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| {| class="wikitable" border=1
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| |-
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| ! !! ''Nominative'' !! ''Accusative'' !! ''Possessive'' !! ''Reflexive'' !! ''Reciprocal''
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''1<sup>st</sup> sing''
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| || na || ena || nayo || na'i || ''' '''
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''2<sup>nd</sup> sing''
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| || ta || eta ||tayo || ta'i || ''' '''
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''3<sup>rd</sup> sing''
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| || ha || eha || hayo || ha'i || ''' '''
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''1<sup>st</sup> plu''
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| || nam || enam || namyo || nami || nanku
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''1<sup>st</sup> plu'' (EXCL)
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| || na'am || ena'am || na'amyo || na'ami || na'anku
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''2<sup>nd</sup> plu''
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| || tam || etam || tamyo || tami || tanku
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| |- align=center
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| ! ''3<sup>rd</sup> plu''
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| || kam || ekam || kamyo || kami || kanku
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| |-
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| |}
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| ==== examples ====
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| *'''namyo ina'''
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| :''1PL-POSS food''
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| ::Our food.
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| *'''kami itsa'''
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| :''3PL-REFL love''
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| ::They love themselves.
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| *'''tanku moto ka'''
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| :''2PL-RECP remember/familiar INT''
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| ::Do you remember each other?
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| *'''eha unyatlik'''
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| :''ACC-3SG understand-FUT-NEG''
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| ::He/She will not be understood.
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| == Thematic Lexicon ==
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| ''Full lexicon'': [[Kala lexicon|''Kala lexicon'']]
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| === numbers ===
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| * zero / nothing / 0 - '''e'o'''
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| * one / 1 - '''na'o'''
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| * two / 2 - '''ta'o'''
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| * three / 3 - '''ha'o'''
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| * four / 4 - '''ma'o'''
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| * five / 5 - '''ya'o'''
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| * six / 6 - '''tsa'o'''
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| * seven / 7 - '''ka'o'''
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| * eight / 8 - '''pa'o'''
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| * nine / 9 - '''sa'o'''
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| * ten / 10 - '''ue'o'''
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| * hundred / 100 - '''nye'o'''
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| * thousand / 1000 - '''tle'o'''
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| ==== higher numbers ====
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| * eleven / 11 - '''uena'o'''
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| * twenty / 20 - '''taue'o'''
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| * one hundred seven / 107 - '''nyeka'o'''
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| * three hundred twenty six / 326 - '''hanyetauetsa'o''' (''long form'') | '''hatatsa'o''' (''short form'')
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| * six thousand and twenty / 6020 - '''tsatletaue'o'''
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| ==== ordinals, negatives, fractions etc. ====
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| * '''ki'''- - ordinal/multiple prefix
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| :Example : '''kisa'o''' - ninth, or nine times
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| :Example : '''kiyanyepa'o''' - 508<sup>th</sup>, or 508 times
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| * '''i'''- - fractional prefix
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| :Example : '''isa'o''' - a ninth
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| :Example : '''iha'o pa'o''' - three eighths, ⅜
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| * -'''k''' - negative/subtractive suffix
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| :Example : '''sa'ok''' - negative nine (-9)
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| :Example : '''ue'o ma sa'ok a na'o''' - 10 and -9 is 1
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| === family ===
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| * family / kin - '''tlika'''
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| * parent - '''onata'''
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| * grandparent - '''onataha'''
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| * spouse - '''tlanata'''
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| * sibling - '''uanata'''
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| * child - '''inata'''
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| * father / uncle - '''ota'''
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| * mother / aunt - '''ona'''
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| * husband - '''tla'ota'''
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| * wife - '''tla'ona'''
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| * grandfather - '''otaha'''
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| * grandmother - '''onaha'''
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| * brother / cousin - '''otaua'''
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| * sister / cousin - '''onaua'''
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| * boy / son - '''ota'i'''
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| * girl / daughter - '''ona'i'''
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| * man / masculine / male - '''tlaka'''
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| * woman / feminine / female - '''naka'''
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| === colors ===
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| * red - '''ketla'''
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| * orange - '''tliyo'''
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| * yellow - '''yana'''
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| * green - '''kuya'''
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| * blue - '''tsuku'''
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| * indigo, violet, purple - '''tlaku'''
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| * white, pale - '''nyahi'''
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| * black, dark - '''oya'''
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| * clear - '''yehi'''
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| === time ===
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| * moment, instant - '''imahi'''
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| * occasion | present, now (yet) - '''ima'''
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| * hour, period - '''imaha'''
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| * day - '''yoma'''
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| * week (7 days) - '''sema'''
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| * month (~30 days) - '''huama'''
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| * season - '''amahi'''
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| * time, year (~365 days) - '''ama'''
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| * era - '''amaha'''
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| * past - '''amaye'''
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| * future - '''amatli'''
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| * always, forever - '''kuama'''
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| * never - '''amak'''
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| === prepositions ===
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| * '''pa'e''' - in / into / during
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| * '''paye''' - across / through
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| * '''po'a''' - behind / after
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| * '''tahe''' - below / under
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| * '''kima''' - like / similar to
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| * '''ma'a''' - with / in company of / using
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| * '''ma'ak''' - without / except
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| * '''ma'e''' - in front of / before
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| * '''mina''' - from / out of / since / of
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| * '''na'e''' - on / on top of
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| * '''nya''' - by (actor / author)
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| * '''sana''' - outside
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| * '''hata''' - by / beside / up to / until
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| * '''tsa'e''' - beyond / past / across
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| * '''ua'e''' - above / over / about / concerning
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| * '''uana''' - there / far / distant
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| * '''yane''' - along / beside
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| * '''ita'e''' - between / among
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| * '''ika''' - to / at / toward
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| * '''o'a''' - opposite / against / in spite of
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| * '''oma''' - around / approximately / close to
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| * '''uta''' - for / in order to / benefiting / on behalf of
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| * '''ue''' - above / over / on
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| == Examples ==
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| * '''mo ta yala ka'''
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| :''place/locale 2sg go/walk/travel INT-part''
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| ::Where are you going?
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| * '''nam tsala inaye'''
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| :''1pl sauce/paste eat-PAST''
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| ::We ate the sauce.
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| * '''ko tayo onatam ka'''
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| :''person 2sg-POSS parent-PL INT-part''
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| ::Who are your parents?
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| * '''na yalaye nye ta talaye'''
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| :''1SG go-PAST because 2SG return-PAST''
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| ::I left because you returned.
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| === Article 1, UDHR ===
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| ''' '''
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| == ==
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| [[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Kala]] | |
