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| {{Kala 2}} | | {{Kala 2}} |
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| | {{wip}} |
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| | <big>'''THIS SECTION IS CURRENTLY BEING UPDATED TO REFLECT A NEW GRAMMAR.'''</big> |
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| The Kala conlang... | | The Kala conlang... |
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| * [[Kala/chat|conversations]] | | * [[Kala/chat|conversations]] |
| * [[Kala/etymology|etymology]] | | * [[Kala/etymology|etymology]] |
| | ** [[Kala/roots|roots]] |
| * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] | | * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] |
| | ** [[Kala/affixes|affixes]] |
| ** [[Kala/lexicon/theme|thematic lexicon]] | | ** [[Kala/lexicon/theme|thematic lexicon]] |
| | * [[Kala/particles|particles]] |
| * [[Kala/phrases|phrases]] | | * [[Kala/phrases|phrases]] |
| * [[Kala/affixes|word formation]] | | * [[Kala/affixes|word formation]] |
| * [[Kala/writing|writing]] | | * [[Kala/writing|writing]] |
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| = Orthography =
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| * Kala conscripts are many and varied. Rather than multiple pages explaining each of them, [[Kala/writing|'''this''']] page serves as a working list with a consistent example across each script. The most commonly used script is the Hangul adaptation for Kala.
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| = Morphology =
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| Kala is a mostly [[wp:Agglutinative language|agglutinative]] language that makes extensive use of compounding, incorporation and derivation. That is, it can add many different [[wp:Prefix (linguistics)|prefixes]] and [[wp:Suffix|suffix]]es to a [[wp:Root (linguistics)|root]] until very long words are formed, and a single word can sometimes constitute an entire sentence.
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| == Numbers ==
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
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| |+
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| |-
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| ! Kala
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| ! number
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| ! English
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| ! Kala
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| ! number
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| ! English
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| ! Kala
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| ! number
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| ! English
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| |-
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| | '''ye'o''' || 0 || zero || '''tsa'o''' || 6 || six || '''nya'o''' || 500 || five hundred
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| |-
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| | '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''ka'o''' || 7 || seven || '''tle'o''' || 10<sup>3</sup> || (one) thousand
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| |-
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| | '''ta'o''' || 2 || two || '''pa'o''' || 8 || eight || '''mue'o''' || 10<sup>4</sup> || ten thousand
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| |-
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| | '''ha'o''' || 3 || three || '''sa'o''' || 9 || nine || '''kye'o''' || 10<sup>5</sup> || (one) hundred thousand
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| |-
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| | '''ma'o''' || 4 || four || '''ue'o''' || 10 || ten || '''nte'o''' || 10<sup>6</sup> || (one) million
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| |-
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| | '''ya'o''' || 5 || five || '''nye'o''' || 100 || (one) hundred || '''hue'o''' || 10<sup>9</sup> || (one) billion
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| |}
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| === Forming Larger Numbers ===
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| * '''uena'o''' - eleven / 11
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| * '''taue'o''' - twenty / 20
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| * '''nyeka'o''' - one hundred seven / 107
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| * '''hanyetauetsa'o''' (''long form'') / '''hatatsa'o''' (''short form'') - three hundred twenty six / 326
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| * '''tsatletauema'o''' - six thousand and twenty four / 6024
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| === Other Number Forms ===
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
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| |+
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| |-
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| ! Kala
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| ! number
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| ! English
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| ! ordinal
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| ! multiple
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| ! fractional
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| |-
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| | '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''kina'o'''<br>first || '''tina'o'''<br>once || -
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| |-
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| | '''ueta'o''' || 12 || twelve || '''kiueta'o'''<br>twelfth || '''tiueta'o'''<br>twelve times || '''iueta'o'''<br>a twelfth
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| |-
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| | '''yauema'o'''<br>'''(yama'o)''' || 54 || fifty four || '''kiyama'o'''<br>fifty fourth || '''tiyama'o'''<br>54 times || '''iyama'o'''<br>a fifty fourth
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| |-
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| | '''nyetsa'o''' || 106 || one hundred (and) six || '''kinyetsa'o'''<br>106<sup>th</sup> || '''tinyetsa'o'''<br>106 times || '''inyetsa'o'''<br>a 106<sup>th</sup>
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| |-
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| | '''katle'o''' || 7000 || seven thousand || '''kikatle'o'''<br>seven thousandth || '''tikatle'o'''<br>7000 times || '''ikatle'o'''<br>1/7000
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| |}
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| === Math Operations ===
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| * '''ha'o ma ya'o ke pa'o a'''
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| : <small>3 and 5 O 8 COP</small>
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| : ''Three plus five is eight.''
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| * '''tsa'o ma ya'ok ke na'o a'''
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| : <small>6 and 5-NEG O 1 COP</small>
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| : ''Six and five-less is one.''
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| * '''ha'o ma tima'o ke ueta'o a'''
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| : <small>3 and multiple-4 O 12 COP</small>
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| : ''Three times four is twelve.''
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| * '''tama'o ma ha'o ke pa'o yeka'''
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| : <small>24 and 3 O 8 division</small>
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| : ''Twenty-four divided by three is eight.''
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| == Verbs ==
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| === Mood ===
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| ==== Negative ====
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| The negative mood (always marked finally) is indicated by the suffix –'''k''' or '''–nke''' (when the last syllable contains /k/).
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| * '''mita inayek''' - <small>dog eat-PST-NEG</small> - ''The dog did not eat.''
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| * '''mita mokunke''' - <small>dog sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog does not sleep.''
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| === Stative verbs ===
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| A large proportion of intransitive verbs are stative verbs, taking over the role of English adjectives. Examples are [[Kala/lexicon#ta|'''taha''']] ''"be big"'' and [[Kala/lexicon#a|'''ahi''']] ''"be small"''. This type of verb is most often used in non-predicative situations, performing an adjective-like function. With intransitive verbs it describes the subject; with transitive verbs it usually describes the patient or theme and is thus roughly comparable to a passive participle in meaning. Essentially, Kala does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives. This leaves open to interpretation many phrases.
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| {{Col-begin}}
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| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''mita inya''' - <small>dog be.hungry</small>
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| ** ''The dog hungers.''
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| ** ''The dog is hungry.''
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| ** ''The hungry dog.''
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| ** ''A hungry dog.''
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| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''tsaka ketlahi''' - <small>house be.red-DIM</small>
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| ** ''The house is a little red.''
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| ** ''The light-red house.''
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| ** ''A pale red house.''
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| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''taki saua''' - <small>coat be.wet</small>
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| ** ''The coat is wet.''
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| ** ''The wet coat.''
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| ** ''A wet coat.''
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| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''umalo tahaku''' - <small>horse-PL be.big-extreme</small>
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| ** ''The horses are extremely large.''
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| ** ''The very big horses.''
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| {{Col-end}}
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| ==== Comparison ====
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| In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the [[Wikipedia:Elative_(gradation)|elative]]. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka'''
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| : <small>house 3sg.POSS O 1sg.POSS big-AUG</small>
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| : ''His house is bigger than mine.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ke mauam tayo yanaha'''
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| : <small>O flower.PL 2sg.POSS yellow-AUG</small>
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| : ''Your flowers are the most yellow.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''iyapo ke tsaka tayo pakoha'''
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| : <small>PROX-building O home 2sg new-AUG</small>
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| : ''This building is newer than your home.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| ==== Relative ====
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| In a relative clause, the verb has the suffix '''-tle''' (or '''-le''' if the final syllable contains /tl/) added to it. The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses. The use of participles in Kala is rather different than in English and at first sight is difficult to understand. This is mainly due to the fact that the relative pronouns ''who, what, which, where'' are not used in Kala as in English.
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| * '''yalapa''' - ''to be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapatle''' - ''who/which/that can walk''
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| * '''yalapak''' - ''to not be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapanketle''' - ''who/which/that can't walk''
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| This nominalizes the verb in some cases, and makes it possible for it to be either the subject or the object.
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| * '''na ke tlaka nya inama talatle unya'''
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| : <small>1sg O man for eat-time come-REL know</small>
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| : ''I know the man who is coming to lunch.''
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| * '''ke naka patlole pako'''
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| : <small>O woman sweep-REL young</small>
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| : ''The woman who is sweeping is young.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| The relative suffix is most often in the final position. In some cases, it may be followed by the negative '''-k'''.
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| * '''itsaka na sutahuetle'''
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| : <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-REL</small>
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| : ''This is the house in which I live.''
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| * '''itsaka na sutahueyetlek'''
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| : <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-PST-REL-NEG</small>
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| : ''This is the house in which I did not live.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| === Adpositionals ===
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| Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. There is one general locative (-'''hue''') which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”. Here are some common verbs used as [[wp:Preposition_and_postposition|adpositions]]:
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| {{Col-begin}}
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| {{Col-2}}
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| * '''pahe''' - against; touching
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| * '''pa'e''' - apart from; other than; except for
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| * '''paye''' - beyond; exceeding; farther than
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| * '''pue''' - after; back; behind; rear
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| * '''tahe''' - below; beneath; under
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| * '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at [moving toward]
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| * '''kaye''' - around; encircling; surrounding
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| * '''mahe''' - around; approximate; close to
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| * '''ma'a''' - with [accompanied by / furnished with]
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| * '''ma'e''' - before; in front
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| * '''maye''' - between; among
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| {{Col-2}}
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| * '''nahe ''' - in [located inside of]; internal
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| * '''nyaue''' - outside of; exterior to
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| * '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
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| * '''saye''' - along; following [a line]
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| * '''hue / -hue''' - at [in the same location as] [LOC]
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| * '''tsa'e''' - across; through
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| * '''ua'e''' - above; over / on
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| * '''uaye''' - from [moving out of or away from]
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| * '''ya'e''' - near; close to
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| * '''yomo''' - to the right of
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| * '''yoso''' - to the left of
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| {{Col-end}}
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| * '''na ke ito yamahue anyapa'''
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| : <small>1sg O tree hill-LOC see-ABIL</small>
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| : ''I can see a tree on the hill.''
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| * '''ntahim nyaue tsaka yoti'''
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| : <small>child-PL outside.of house play</small>
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| : ''The children are playing outside of the house.''
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| = Word formation =
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| == Compounding ==
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| New nouns are usually created through head-initial compounding, using both nominal and verbal stems as the second, dependent element of the compound. The resulting lexical entries usually behave as single phonological words, which, however, have four full syllables: '''kuatlatloha''' "grass snake". Compounding of more than two elements is not common.
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| * '''kayapusu''' - "earthquake" > '''kaya''' - earth + '''pusu''' - vibrate
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| * '''asuaseka''' - "leather" > '''asua''' - skin + '''seka''' - dry
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| There are also numerous [[Kala/affixes|'''affixes''']] used to form new meanings. A few examples are;
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| * '''tiyasu''' - "bakery" > '''tiya''' - bread + '''-su''' - market; shop
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| * '''onyomo''' - "school" > '''onyo''' - learn + '''-mo''' - place; location
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| * '''kuhasa''' - "kitchen" > '''kuha''' - cook + '''-sa''' - room; chamber
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| * '''pyetampu''' - "egg-shaped" > '''pyeta''' - egg + '''-mpu''' - shape; form
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| == Derivation ==
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| === Verbalization ===
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| Causative verbs (as well as achievement verbs) can be formed from other verbs by adding [[Kala/affixes#mya|-'''mya''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ma|'''muya''']] - ''"do, make, cause"'') or [[Kala/affixes#la|-'''la''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#a|'''ela''']] - ''"become; change into; turn into"''). This type of derivation is fairly common; however, verbs created in this way are syntactically defective and tend to appear only in serial verb constructions.
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| * '''tinamya''' - "bend" < '''tina''' - be bent
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| * '''pitamya''' - "hollow out" < '''pita''' - be hollow; void
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| * '''enomya''' - "annoy, bother" < '''eno''' - be angry
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| * '''tsipuela''' - "slow down" < '''tsipue''' - be slow
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| * '''kyolola''' - "speed up" < '''kyolo''' - be quick
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| Intensive verbs can be formed from other verbs by adding [[Kala/affixes#mpa|-'''mpa''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#mpa|'''mpa''']] - ''"many; much; very"''), or more commonly [[Kala/affixes#hu|-'''hu''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ka|'''kyohu''']] - ''"be drastic; extreme; aggressive"'').
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| * '''ketsahu''' - "dismiss, reject, repudiate" < '''ketsa''' - doubt
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| * '''amyampa''' - "fall in love with" < '''amya''' - be fond of; like; prefer (of people)
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| Adjective-like stative verbs which name an associated quality may be formed from nouns by [[Kala/affixes#n|-'''n''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#na|'''no''']] - ''"thing" (-ish, -ly, -ous)'').
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| * '''timan''' - "be cruel, be bloody" < '''tima''' - blood
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| * '''amyan''' - "be welcoming, be hospitable" < '''amya''' - be fond of
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| === Nominalization ===
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| ==== Agentive ====
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| Nouns referring to a human subject of a verb (''usually in a habitual sense'') can be formed with the agentive suffix [[Kala/affixes#ko|-'''ko''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ka|'''ko''']] - ''"individual; person"''). This suffix changes to '''-tlo''' when a [[wp:Velar_stop|velar stop]] is present in the preceding syllable.
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|
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| * '''kitlako''' - "craftsman" < '''kitla''' - create; invent; make-up
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| * '''sutako''' - "inhabitant (of)" < '''suta''' - live; reside; dwell; inhabit; settle
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| * '''yekatlo''' - "unmarried young adult" < '''yeka''' - be separate, be on one's own
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| * '''makatlo''' - "musician" < '''maka''' - music; play ~; tune
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| * '''tsaniko''' - "storyteller" < '''tsani''' - recite, tell (a story)
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| ==== Instrumental ====
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| Instrument nouns and names for tools and other inanimates can be derived from verbs or from other nouns by adding the suffix [[Kala/affixes#nyo|-'''nyo''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ma|'''mayo''']] - ''"device; equipment; tool"'').
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|
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| * '''hitanyo''' - "atlatl (spear-thrower)" < '''hita''' - throw; cast; expel
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| * '''amonyo''' - "handle (for carrying)" < '''amo''' - transport; carry
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| * '''kusunyo''' - "clasp, brooch, fibula" < '''kusu''' - squeeze
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| * '''toponyo''' - "lock" < '''topo''' - door; gate
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| ==== Locative ====
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| Location nouns can be formed from both nouns and verbs by several suffixes. These indicate specific places where either something happens, or something resides there are a few affixes which modify both verbs and nouns.
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| [[Kala/affixes#mo|-'''mo''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ma|'''mo''']] - ''"location; place; site"''). This suffix is used to form the general idea of where something happens or resides.
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| * '''tanamo''' - "battlefield; boxing ring; wrestling mat, etc." < '''tana''' - fight; combat
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| * '''uelomo''' - "bicycle-place; bike path; bike rack, etc." < '''uelo''' - bicycle; bike
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| * '''inamo''' - "eat-place; dining room; restaurant" [This can also mean food-place; pantry, etc.] < '''ina''' - food; eat
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| * '''onyomo''' - "learn-place; school" < '''onyo''' - learn; study
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|
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| [[Kala/affixes#su|-'''su''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#sa|'''suku''']] - ''"market; shop; store"''). This suffix is used to specify a business where items are produced and/or sold.
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|
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| * '''tiyasu''' - "bread-shop; bakery" < '''tiya''' - bread
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| * '''inasu''' - "food-market; grocery store; restaurant" < '''ina''' - food; eat
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| * '''uelosu''' - "bicycle-shop" < '''uelo''' - bicycle; bike
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|
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| [[Kala/affixes#kyo|-'''kyo''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ha|'''hakyo''']] - ''"college; school; university"''). This suffix is used to specify a location where students learn. This can also be used to indicate a school of thought, or ideology.
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|
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| * '''tanakyo''' - "dojo; martial arts training academy; etc." < '''tana''' - fight; combat
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| * '''kuhakyo''' - "culinary-school; chef’s academy" < '''kuha''' - cook; prepare food
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| * '''tsiyakyo''' - "liberalism" < '''tsiya''' - freedom; liberty
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| * '''ya'akyo''' - "medical-school" < '''ya'a''' - medicine; drug; cure
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|
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| [[Kala/affixes#sa|-'''sa''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#sa|'''sala''']] - ''"chamber; room; section"''). This is more specific than
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| [[Kala/affixes#mo|-'''mo''']] and used primarily for spaces inside buildings.
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|
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| * '''kuhasa''' - "cook-room; kitchen" < '''kuha''' - cook; prepare food
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| * '''mokusa''' - "sleep-room; bedroom" < '''moku''' - sleep; rest
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| * '''inasa''' - "eat-room; dining room" < '''ina''' - food; eat
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| * '''onyosa''' - "learn-room; classroom" < '''onyo''' - learn; study
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|
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| ==== Diminutive ====
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|
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| Diminutive nouns and endearment terms can be formed from verbs and other nouns by adding the suffix [[Kala/affixes#hi|-'''hi''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#a|'''ahi''']] - ''"few; small"''). This becomes '''-ki''' after a syllable that contains a [[wp:Glottal_fricative|glottal fricative]].
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|
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| * '''mukuhi''' - "blade" < '''muku''' - knife
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| * '''umahi''' - "foal" < '''uma''' - horse; equine
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| * '''mitahi''' - "puppy" < '''mita''' - dog; canine
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| * '''ohuaki''' - "indulgence" < '''ohua''' - luxurious; extravagant
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|
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| ==== Augmentative ====
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|
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| Augmentative nouns can be formed from verbs and other nouns by adding the suffix [[Kala/affixes#ha|-'''ha''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ta|'''taha''']] - ''"big; large; grand"''). This becomes '''-ka''' after a syllable that contains a [[wp:Glottal_fricative|glottal fricative]].
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|
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| * '''kamaha''' - "city" < '''kama''' - village; town
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| * '''ohaka''' - "dislocate one's jaw" < '''oha''' - yawn; open one's mouth
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| * '''mosaha''' - "epic; novel" < '''mosa''' - book; letter; scroll
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| * '''tiniha''' - "hurricane" < '''tini''' - spiral; whorl
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|
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| ==== Honorific ====
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|
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| Honorific nouns can be formed from other nouns by prefixing [[Kala/affixes#o|'''o'''-]].
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|
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| * '''omasa''' - "stag" < '''masa''' - deer; cervine
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| * '''okama''' - "capital" < '''kama''' - town; village
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|
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| = Syntax =
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|
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| == Simple sentences ==
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| === Intransitive clauses ===
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|
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| Intransitive clauses in Kala minimally consist of a subject followed by an intransitive verb, giving SV word order.
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|
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| * '''nta'i moku'''
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| : <small>baby sleep</small>
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| : ''The baby sleeps.''
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|
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| * '''mita ina'''
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| : <small>dog eat</small>
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| : ''The dog eats.''
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|
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| * '''sama nala'''
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| : <small>sun shine</small>
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| : ''The sun shines.''
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|
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| * '''kamahi ke naha ya'e'''
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| : <small>town-DIM O river be.near</small>
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| : ''There is a village near the river.''
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|
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| * '''ke apua muyapua'''
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| : <small>O song do-PFV</small>
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| : ''The song has been sung.''
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|
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| === Transitive clauses ===
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|
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| Clauses with transitive verbs follow a SOV pattern.
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|
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| * '''ona ke matla kuha'''
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| : <small>mother O stew cook</small>
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| : ''The mother is cooking stew.''
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|
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| * '''tasako ke masala yake'''
| |
| : <small>hunt-AG O deer-INDEF chase</small>
| |
| : ''The hunters are chasing some deer.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''kyali ke itohuatla peha'''
| |
| : <small>spear O tree-oak pierce</small>
| |
| : ''The spear pierces the oak tree.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''tasako ke mitla hita ma ne masa mata'''
| |
| : <small>hunt-AG O arrow cast and DO deer kill</small>
| |
| : ''The hunter shoots an arrow and kills the deer.''
| |
|
| |
| === Predication ===
| |
|
| |
| Nominal predicates are formed with the copula '''a''', using SOV word order. However, more common is the idiomatic omission of the copula and object marker.
| |
|
| |
| * '''tsola ke haya a'''
| |
| : <small>fox O animal COP</small>
| |
| : ''The fox is an animal.'' (grammatical)
| |
|
| |
| * '''tsola haya'''
| |
| : <small>fox animal</small>
| |
| : ''The fox is an animal.'' (idiomatic)
| |
|
| |
| * '''itlaka ke taya nayo a'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-man O husband 1sg.POSS COP</small>
| |
| : ''This man is my husband.'' (grammatical)
| |
|
| |
| * '''itlaka ke taya nayo'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-man O husband 1sg.POSS</small>
| |
| : ''This man is my husband.'' (idiomatic)
| |
|
| |
| === Oblique participants ===
| |
|
| |
| Kala verb phrases have only a single object slot. As a result, the patient of a ditransitive clause needs to be introduced with the help of a preposition.
| |
|
| |
| ==== Dative and benefactive ====
| |
|
| |
| Dative participants are marked with the preposition '''nya''' ‘for, by, via’.
| |
|
| |
| * '''ntahi ke nyotlomi nya kinti yeta'''
| |
| : <small>child O nut-PAUC BEN squirrel give</small>
| |
| : ''The child gives a few nuts to the squirrel.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''ikema nya na tlahi'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-task BEN 1sg be.easy</small>
| |
| : ''This task is easy for me.''
| |
|
| |
| Benefactive participants are also marked with the preposition '''nya''' ‘for, by, via’.
| |
|
| |
| * '''mekatlo nya ntakum ke tsani yomu'''
| |
| : <small>holy-AG BEN sibling-PL O story recite</small>
| |
| : ''The shaman recites a story for the siblings.''
| |
|
| |
| Antibenefactive participants are marked like ordinary datives using '''nya''':
| |
|
| |
| * '''tekim nya kamahi namyo tanyaye'''
| |
| : <small>enemy-PL BEN town-DIM 1pl.POSS destroy-PST</small>
| |
| : ''The enemies destroyed our village.''
| |
|
| |
| ==== Instrumental ====
| |
| Instrumental participants are marked with the preposition wo ‘with, by, using’.
| |
|
| |
| * '''ona ke nta'i hayo ma'a tlimu nohya'''
| |
| : <small>mother O baby 3sg.POSS with blanket wrap</small>
| |
| : ''The mother wraps her baby in a blanket.''
| |
|
| |
| In passive sentences, agents may be reintroduced with the preposition '''nya''' ‘by’:
| |
|
| |
| * '''ke aha nya ntahi apua'u'''
| |
| : <small>O melody by child sing-PFV</small>
| |
| : ''The song has been sung by the child.''
| |
|
| |
| ==== Comitative ====
| |
| ==== Locative ====
| |
|
| |
| === Negation ===
| |
|
| |
| Negation, both of noun phrases and of clauses, is made with the negating suffix '''-k''' (or '''-nke'''), which affixes to the negated element. Kala utilizes multiple negation, like '''tlok ak''' (<small>AG-NEG COP-NEG</small>) - (there isn't anyone / there is no-one).
| |
|
| |
| * '''intahi ke nok onyotlik'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-child O thing-NEG learn-FUT-NEG</small>
| |
| : ''This child will learn nothing.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''mita inyak'''
| |
| : <small>dog hunger-NEG</small>
| |
| : ''The dog is not hungry.''
| |
|
| |
| The suffix '''-nke''' also marks the [[wp:Abessive_case|abessive]], meaning ''without, or lacking''.
| |
|
| |
| * '''ha ke’e hatsanke nya potsi hayo kayoye'''
| |
| : <small>3SG so luck-ABE for wallet 3SG.POSS lose-PST</small>
| |
| : ''He was unlucky enough to lose his wallet.''
| |
|
| |
| === Interrogatives ===
| |
|
| |
| There are two types of questions: [[Wikipedia:Yes–no_question|Polar]], those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers.
| |
|
| |
| ==== Polar questions ====
| |
|
| |
| Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.
| |
|
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''mita ina'''
| |
| : <small>dog eat</small>
| |
| : ''The dog eats.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''nta'i moku'''
| |
| : <small>baby sleep</small>
| |
| : ''The baby is sleeping. / The baby sleeps.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye'''
| |
| : <small>2SG O elephant see-PST</small>
| |
| : ''You saw the elephant.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye'''
| |
| : <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST</small>
| |
| : ''The doctor gave you the medicine.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''mita ina ka'''
| |
| : <small>dog eat Q</small>
| |
| : ''Does the dog eat?''
| |
|
| |
| * '''nta'i moku ka'''
| |
| : <small>baby sleep Q</small>
| |
| : ''Is the baby sleeping?''
| |
|
| |
| * '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye ka'''
| |
| : <small>2SG O elephant see-PST Q</small>
| |
| : ''Did you see the elephant?''
| |
|
| |
| * '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye ka'''
| |
| : <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST Q</small>
| |
| : ''Did the doctor give you the medicine?''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
|
| |
| ==== Content questions ====
| |
|
| |
| Questions that give a list of possible answers are formed like polar questions, with the conjunction '''ue''' ‘or’ introducing each alternative (which must appear in the form of a noun phrase).
| |
|
| |
| * '''ta ke nkapa ue maya inuue ka'''
| |
| : <small>2SG O beer or.EXCL water drink-VOL Q</small>
| |
| : ''Do you want to drink beer or water?''
| |
|
| |
| * '''uala ta ke sinka mataye ue empa ma koma ka'''
| |
| : <small>truly 2sg O lion kill-PST or.EXCL flee CONJ hide Q</small>
| |
| : ''Did you really kill the lion, or did you run away and hide?''
| |
|
| |
| Open content questions are most easily formed with the correlatives, such as '''ko''' ‘person’, '''mo''' ‘place’, '''to''' ‘manner’, etc. These correlatives always appear clause-initially:
| |
|
| |
| * '''ko ta ka'''
| |
| : <small>person 2sg Q</small>
| |
| : ''Who are you?''
| |
|
| |
| * '''itla ka'''
| |
| : <small>this Q</small>
| |
| : ''What is this?''
| |
|
| |
| * '''to kihu ka'''
| |
| : <small>manner weather Q</small>
| |
| : ''What's the weather like?''
| |
|
| |
| The other type contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':
| |
|
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
| |
| |+ kanyo
| |
| |-
| |
| !
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! gloss
| |
| ! English
| |
| |-
| |
| ! object
| |
| | '''ke mita ina ka''' || <small>O dog eat Q</small> || ''What does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! person
| |
| | '''ko ina ka''' || <small>person eat Q</small> || ''Who eats?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! possession
| |
| | '''koyo mita ina ka''' || <small>person-POSS dog eat Q</small> || ''Whose dog eats?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! manner
| |
| | '''to mita ina ka''' || <small>manner dog eat Q</small> || ''How does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! place
| |
| | '''mo mita ina ka''' || <small>place dog eat Q</small> || ''Where does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! reason
| |
| | '''nye mita ina ka''' || <small>reason dog eat Q</small> || ''Why does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! time
| |
| | '''ama mita ina ka''' || <small>time dog eat Q</small> || ''When does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! amount
| |
| | '''uku mita ina ka''' || <small>amount dog eat Q</small> || ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! which
| |
| | '''ula mita ina ka''' || <small>any dog eat Q</small> || ''Which dog eats?''
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| === Passives ===
| |
| The passive voice is formed by prefixing '''e'''- ([[wp:Patient_(grammar)|patient marker]]) to pronouns, and the object marker '''ke''' for nouns, or '''nya''' "for, by, via". Compare these simple sentences:
| |
|
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
|
| |
| * '''matla kuha'''
| |
| : <small>stew cook</small>
| |
| : ''The stew cooks.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''ha yatsi'''
| |
| : <small>3sg bite</small>
| |
| : ''She bites.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''ha yapo'''
| |
| : <small>3sg build</small>
| |
| : ''She builds.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
|
| |
| * '''ke matla kuhapua'''
| |
| : <small>O stew cook-PFV</small>
| |
| : ''The stew has been cooked.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''eha yatsi'''
| |
| : <small>P.3sg bite</small>
| |
| : ''He is bitten.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''etla nya ha yapo'''
| |
| : <small>P.4sg by 3sg build</small>
| |
| : ''It is built by him.''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
|
| |
| Kala can also passivize some intransitive verbs (especially verbs that describe activities rather than states). This has the effect of creating an impersonal predicate without any syntactic subject, often carrying existential semantics.
| |
|
| |
| * '''ke kema'''
| |
| : <small>O work</small>
| |
| : ''There is work to do. (lit. it is work)''
| |
|
| |
| * '''ke hina kyo'a'''
| |
| : <small>P.4sg by 3sg build</small>
| |
| : ''It's quiet around here. (lit. here is quieted)''
| |
|
| |
| === Reflexives and reciprocals ===
| |
|
| |
| Kala has reflexive and reciprocal [[Kala#Pronouns|pronoun]] forms, and as such declarative phrases are regular and predictable.
| |
|
| |
| * '''na'i sepaye'''
| |
| : <small>1sg.REFL injure-PST</small>
| |
| : ''I hurt myself.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''ha'i tlela'''
| |
| : <small>3sg.REFL bathe</small>
| |
| : ''She bathes herself.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''kanku ke onta nayo itsa'''
| |
| : <small>3pl.RECP O parent 1sg.POSS love</small>
| |
| : ''My parents love each other.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''na'anku amyapak'''
| |
| : <small>1pl.EXCL.RECP like-ABIL-NEG</small>
| |
| : ''We (but not you) are not able to like each other.''
| |
|
| |
| == Complex sentences ==
| |
| === Clause coordination ===
| |
|
| |
| Clause-level conjunctions such as '''ku''' "and", '''ua''' "or", or '''ehe''' "but, however" are placed clause-initially. Note that these conjunctions cannot be used to connect noun phrases.
| |
|
| |
| * '''tahi tohyo ku nahi pina'''
| |
| : <small>boy brave CL.CONJ girl intelligent</small>
| |
| : ''The boy is brave and the girl is intelligent.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''ima kihu saman ehe pakyotlai'''
| |
| : <small>now weather sun-ADJ however storm-IMM</small>
| |
| : ''Now the weather is sunny, but a storm will come soon.''
| |
|
| |
| === Coordination of noun phrases ===
| |
|
| |
| Non-subject noun phrases are coordinated using the conjunction '''ma''' "and" (sometimes "with").
| |
|
| |
| * '''yomaye na ke tanka ma pato anya'''
| |
| : <small>day-PST 1sg O eagle CONJ duck see</small>
| |
| : ''I saw an eagle and a duck yesterday.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''kinti ke tsaka kamyo ma'a yosu sapotle ma siuem muya'''
| |
| : <small>squirrel O house 3pl.POSS with moss soft-REL and leaf.PL make</small>
| |
| : ''The squirrels make their nest comfortable with soft moss and leaves.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''ona ma ota kyosanku'''
| |
| : <small>mother and father fornicate-RECP</small>
| |
| : ''Mother and father have sex [with each other].''
| |
|
| |
| * '''ta ma'a na ke molihuelatli'''
| |
| : <small>2sg with 1sg O forest-LOC-MOT-FUT</small>
| |
| : ''You and I will go to the forest together.''
| |
|
| |
| Noun phrases can be presented as alternatives to each other with the conjunction '''ua''' "or; other". This conjunction can be used with both subjects and non-subjects. The conjunction '''ue''' "(exclusive) either X or Y" is used to delimit other nouns from the conjunction phrase.
| |
|
| |
| * '''ta ke nasi ua poma inamyo'''
| |
| : <small>2sg O pear or apple eat-PERM</small>
| |
| : ''You may eat an apple or a pear.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''tsola ue otso itsikua mataye'''
| |
| : <small>fox either.X.or.Y wolf PROX-bird kill-PST</small>
| |
| : ''It must have been a fox or a wolf that killed this bird.''
| |
|
| |
| Contrastive coordination of noun phrases ("but") is achieved with '''ehe''' "but; however" (or '''me''' more informally) if the noun phrases appear in subject position.
| |
|
| |
| * '''yomaye mita'u ehek mitana ke kutsu kapya'''
| |
| : <small>day-PST dog-MASC but-NEG O meat receive</small>
| |
| : ''The male dog but not the female dog received meat yesterday.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''na itlaka mek inaka unya'''
| |
| : <small>1sg PROX-man but-NEG PROX-woman know</small>
| |
| : ''I know this man, but not this woman.''
| |
|
| |
| === Complement clauses ===
| |
| === Relative clauses ===
| |
|
| |
| Relative clauses, i.e. subordinated clauses acting as an attribute to a noun phrase, are marked with the relativizer '''-tle''' (or '''-le''' if the last syllable has '''tl'''). A pronoun referring to the relativized noun is retained within the relative clause:
| |
|
| |
| * '''na ka naka amyatle pesoue'''
| |
| : <small>1sg O woman liked-REL meet-VOL</small>
| |
| : ''I want to meet a girl who is friendly.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''naku nayo ke yakokua na tikuyetle inapua'''
| |
| : <small>sister 1sg.POSS O strawberry-all 1sg pick-PST-REL eat-PFV</small>
| |
| : ''My sister has eaten all the strawberries that I picked.''
| |
|
| |
|
| * '''kam tananitle ke teki tlalitli'''
| |
| : <small>3pl fight-nice-REL O enemy defeat-FUT</small>
| |
| : ''They who fight well will defeat the enemy.''
| |
|
| |
|
| === Adverbial clauses ===
| |
|
| |
|
| = Serial verb construction =
| |
| == Sequential events ==
| |
| === Lexicalized sequential serials ===
| |
| == Grammatical use of serial verbs ==
| |
| === Causatives ===
| |
| === Comparison ===
| |
| === Motion verbs ===
| |
| ==== Direction and deixis ====
| |
| ==== Manner of motion ====
| |
| ==== Source and target ====
| |
| === Posture and orientation ===
| |
| === Aspect ===
| |
| = Advanced Syntax =
| |
| == Adverbial Constructions ==
| |
| === Time ===
| |
| === Place ===
| |
| === Reason ===
| |
| === Purpose ===
| |
| === Result ===
| |
| === Manner ===
| |
| === Measure ===
| |
| === Frequency ===
| |
| === Conditionals ===
| |
| === Consessives ===
| |
| == Modality ==
| |
| == Evidentiality ==
| |
| == Volition ==
| |
| == Reported Speech ==
| |
| === Quotations ===
| |
| === Indirect Speech ===
| |
| === Indirect Questions ===
| |
|
| |
|
| [[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Conscripts]] | | [[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Conscripts]][[Category:Kala]] |
