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| {{Kala 2}} | | {{Kala 2}} |
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| | {{wip}} |
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| | <big>'''THIS SECTION IS CURRENTLY BEING UPDATED TO REFLECT A NEW GRAMMAR.'''</big> |
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| The Kala conlang... | | The Kala conlang... |
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| * [[Kala/chat|conversations]] | | * [[Kala/chat|conversations]] |
| * [[Kala/etymology|etymology]] | | * [[Kala/etymology|etymology]] |
| | ** [[Kala/roots|roots]] |
| * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] | | * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] |
| | ** [[Kala/affixes|affixes]] |
| ** [[Kala/lexicon/theme|thematic lexicon]] | | ** [[Kala/lexicon/theme|thematic lexicon]] |
| | * [[Kala/particles|particles]] |
| * [[Kala/phrases|phrases]] | | * [[Kala/phrases|phrases]] |
| * [[Kala/affixes|word formation]] | | * [[Kala/affixes|word formation]] |
| * [[Kala/writing|writing]] | | * [[Kala/writing|writing]] |
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| == glossing ==
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| Glossing abbreviations.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''1; 2; 3; 4''' - [[wp:Grammatical_person|Person]]
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| * '''ABE''' - [[wp:Abessive_case|Abessive]]
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| * '''ABL''' - [[wp:Ablative_case|Ablative]]
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| * '''ADV''' - [[wp:Adverbial|Adverbial]]
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| * '''AG''' - [[wp:Agent_(grammar)|Agent]]
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| * '''ATT''' - Attemptative
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| * '''AUG''' - [[wp:Augmentative|Augmentative]]
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| * '''BEN''' - [[wp:Benefactive_case|Benefactive]]
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| * '''CAUS''' - [[wp:Causative|Causative]]
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| * '''COL''' - [[wp:Collective_noun|Collective]]
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| * '''COMP''' - [[wp:Comparative|Comparative]]
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| * '''CONJ''' - [[wp:Grammatical_conjunction|Conjunction]]
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| * '''COP''' - [[wp:Copula_(linguistics)|Copula]]
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| * '''DIM''' - [[wp:Diminutive|Diminutive]]
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| * '''DIS''' - [[wp:Future_tense|Distant future tense]]
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| * '''DIST''' - [[wp:Deixis|Distal]]
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| * '''DUB''' - [[wp:Dubitative_mood|Dubitative]]
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| * '''EQU''' - [[wp:Equative_case|Equative]]
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| * '''EXCL''' - [[wp:Clusivity|Exclusive]]
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''FEM''' - [[wp:Grammatical_gender|Feminine]]
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| * '''FUT''' - [[wp:Future_tense|Future tense]]
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| * '''GEN''' - [[wp:Genitive_case|Genitive]]
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| * '''HON''' - [[wp:Honorifics_(linguistics)|Honorific]]
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| * '''HORT''' - [[wp:Hortative|Hortative]]
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| * '''IMM''' - [[wp:Future_tense|Immediate future tense]]
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| * '''IMP''' - [[wp:Imperative_mood|Imperative]]
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| * '''INE''' - [[wp:Inessive_case|Inessive]]
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| * '''IRR''' - [[wp:Irrealis_mood|Irrealis]]
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| * '''LIM''' - Limitative
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| * '''LOC''' - [[wp:Locative_case|Locative]]
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| * '''MASC''' - [[wp:Grammatical_gender|Masculine]]
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| * '''MED''' - [[wp:Deixis|Medial]]
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| * '''NEC''' - [[wp:Necessitative_mood|Necessitative]]
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| * '''NEG''' - [[wp:Affirmative_and_negative|Negative]]
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| * '''P''' / '''O''' - [[wp:Patient_(grammar)|Patient (object)]]
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| * '''PERM''' - [[wp:Permissive_mood|Permissive]]
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| * '''PFV''' - [[wp:Perfective_aspect|Perfective]]
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| * '''POSS''' - [[wp:Possessive|Possessive]]
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| * '''POT''' - [[wp:Irrealis_mood#Potential|Potential]]
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''PREC''' - [[wp:Irrealis_mood#Precative|Precative]]
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| * '''PREP''' - [[wp:Prepositional_case|Prepositional]]
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| * '''PROG''' - [[wp:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|Progressive]]
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| * '''PROX''' - [[wp:Deixis|Proximal]]
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| * '''PST''' - [[wp:Past_tense|Past tense]]
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| * '''REC''' - [[wp:Past_tense|Recent past tense]]
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| * '''RECP''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_(grammar)|Reciprocal]]
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| * '''REFL''' - [[wp:Reflexive_pronoun|Reflexive]]
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| * '''REM''' - [[wp:Past_tense|Remote past tense]]
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| * '''SUG''' - [[wp:Subjunctive_mood|Suggestive Mood]]
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| * '''VOC''' - [[wp:Vocative_case|Vocative]]
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| * '''VOL''' - [[wp:Desiderative_mood|Volitive, Desiderative]]
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| * '''INCH''' - [[wp:Inchoative_aspect|Inchoative]]
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| * '''INS''' - [[wp:Instrumental_case|Instrumental]]
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| * '''INT''' - [[wp:Intensive_word_form|Intensive]]
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| * '''INTERJ''' - [[wp:Interjection|Interjection]]
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| * '''PL''' - [[wp:Plural|Plural]]
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| * '''SG''' - [[wp:Plural|Singular]]
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| * '''SB''' - [[wp:Indefinite_pronoun|Somebody]]
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| * '''STH''' - [[wp:Indefinite_pronoun|Something]]
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| {{col-end}}
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| = phonology =
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| === consonants ===
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| === vowels ===
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| ==== diphthongs ====
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| === syllable structure ===
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| ==== syllables ====
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| === stress ===
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| = word order =
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| = content words =
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| == nouns ==
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| === plural ===
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| == pronouns ==
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| === pronoun declensions ===
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| === demonstratives ===
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| === correlative pronouns ===
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| == verbs ==
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| === adjectives ===
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| Kala does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives. This leaves open to interpretation many phrases.
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| {{Col-begin}}
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| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''mita inya''' - <small>dog be.hungry</small>
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| ** ''The dog hungers.''
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| ** ''The dog is hungry.''
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| ** ''The hungry dog.''
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| ** ''A hungry dog.''
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| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''tsaka ketlahi''' - <small>house be.red-DIM</small>
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| ** ''The house is a little red.''
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| ** ''The light-red house.''
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| ** ''A pale red house.''
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| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''taki saua''' - <small>coat be.wet</small>
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| ** ''The coat is wet.''
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| ** ''The wet coat.''
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| ** ''A wet coat.''
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| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''umalo tahaku''' - <small>horse-PL be.big-extreme</small>
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| ** ''The horses are extremely large.''
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| ** ''The very big horses.''
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| {{Col-end}}
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| ==== comparison ====
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| In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the [[Wikipedia:Elative_(gradation)|elative]]. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka'''
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| : <small>house 3sg.POSS O 1sg.POSS big-AUG</small>
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| : ''His house is bigger than mine.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ke mauam tayo yanaha'''
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| : <small>O flower.PL 2sg.POSS yellow-AUG</small>
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| : ''Your flowers are the most yellow.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''iyapo ke tsaka tayo pakoha'''
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| : <small>PROX-building O home 2sg new-AUG</small>
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| : ''This building is newer than your home.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| ==== relative ====
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| In a relative clause, the verb has the suffix '''-tle''' (or '''-le''' if the final syllable contains /tl/) added to it. The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses. The use of participles in Kala is rather different than in English and at first sight is difficult to understand. This is mainly due to the fact that the relative pronouns ''who, what, which, where'' are not used in Kala as in English.
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| * '''yalapa''' - ''to be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapatle''' - ''who/which/that can walk''
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| * '''yalapak''' - ''to not be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapanketle''' - ''who/which/that can't walk''
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| This nominalizes the verb in some cases, and makes it possible for it to be either the subject or the object.
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| * '''na ke tlaka nya inama talatle unya'''
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| : <small>1sg O man for eat-time come-REL know</small>
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| : ''I know the man who is coming to lunch.''
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| * '''ke naka patlole pako'''
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| : <small>O woman sweep-REL young</small>
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| : ''The woman who is sweeping is young.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| The relative suffix is most often in the final position. In some cases, it may be followed by the negative '''-k'''.
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| * '''itsaka na sutahuetle'''
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| : <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-REL</small>
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| : ''This is the house in which I live.''
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| * '''itsaka na sutahueyetlek'''
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| : <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-PST-REL-NEG</small>
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| : ''This is the house in which I did not live.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| === adpositionals ===
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| Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. There is one general locative (-'''hue''') which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”. Here are some common verbs used as [[wp:Preposition_and_postposition|adpositions]]:
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| {{Col-begin}}
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| {{Col-2}}
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| * '''pahe''' - against; touching
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| * '''pa'e''' - apart from; other than; except for
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| * '''paye''' - beyond; exceeding; farther than
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| * '''pue''' - after; back; behind; rear
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| * '''tahe''' - below; beneath; under
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| * '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at [moving toward]
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| * '''kaye''' - around; encircling; surrounding
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| * '''mahe''' - around; approximate; close to
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| * '''ma'a''' - with [accompanied by / furnished with]
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| * '''ma'e''' - before; in front
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| * '''maye''' - between; among
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| {{Col-2}}
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| * '''nahe ''' - in [located inside of]; internal
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| * '''nyaue''' - outside of; exterior to
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| * '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
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| * '''saye''' - along; following [a line]
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| * '''hue / -hue''' - at [in the same location as] [LOC]
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| * '''tsa'e''' - across; through
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| * '''ua'e''' - above; over / on
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| * '''uaye''' - from [moving out of or away from]
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| * '''ya'e''' - near; close to
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| * '''yomo''' - to the right of
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| * '''yoso''' - to the left of
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| {{Col-end}}
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| == numbers ==
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| = function words =
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| == particles ==
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| ==== ke ====
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| The most common particle in Kala. It marks the object...
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| == conjunctions ==
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| == interjections ==
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| The most common interjections in Kala are as follows;
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| * '''kya''' - imperative particle
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| * '''kyo''' - imperative particle
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| * '''kyo'a''' - imperative particle
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| * '''nka''' - emphatic negative
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| * '''ya''' - vocative particle
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| * '''a''' - affirmative
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| * '''aya''' - expresses strong emotions such as surprise ('ah', 'argh') and pain ('ow')
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| = questions =
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| The other type contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
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| |+ kanyo
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| |-
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| !
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| ! Kala
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| ! gloss
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| ! English
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| |-
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| ! object
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| | '''ke mita ina ka''' || <small>O dog eat Q</small> || ''What does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! person
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| | '''ko ina ka''' || <small>person eat Q</small> || ''Who eats?''
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| |-
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| ! possession
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| | '''koyo mita ina ka''' || <small>person-POSS dog eat Q</small> || ''Whose dog eats?''
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| |-
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| ! manner
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| | '''to mita ina ka''' || <small>manner dog eat Q</small> || ''How does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! place
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| | '''mo mita ina ka''' || <small>place dog eat Q</small> || ''Where does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! reason
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| | '''nye mita ina ka''' || <small>reason dog eat Q</small> || ''Why does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! time
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| | '''ama mita ina ka''' || <small>time dog eat Q</small> || ''When does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! amount
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| | '''uku mita ina ka''' || <small>amount dog eat Q</small> || ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! which
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| | '''ula mita ina ka''' || <small>any dog eat Q</small> || ''Which dog eats?''
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| |}
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| = syntax =
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| == intransitive ==
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| == transitive ==
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| == negation ==
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| [[Category:Conlangs]] | | [[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Conscripts]][[Category:Kala]] |
