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| {{Kala 2}} | | {{Kala 2}} |
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| | {{wip}} |
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| | <big>'''THIS SECTION IS CURRENTLY BEING UPDATED TO REFLECT A NEW GRAMMAR.'''</big> |
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| The Kala conlang... | | The Kala conlang... |
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| * [[Kala/chat|conversations]] | | * [[Kala/chat|conversations]] |
| * [[Kala/etymology|etymology]] | | * [[Kala/etymology|etymology]] |
| | ** [[Kala/roots|roots]] |
| * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] | | * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] |
| | ** [[Kala/affixes|affixes]] |
| ** [[Kala/lexicon/theme|thematic lexicon]] | | ** [[Kala/lexicon/theme|thematic lexicon]] |
| | * [[Kala/particles|particles]] |
| * [[Kala/phrases|phrases]] | | * [[Kala/phrases|phrases]] |
| * [[Kala/affixes|word formation]] | | * [[Kala/affixes|word formation]] |
| * [[Kala/writing|writing]] | | * [[Kala/writing|writing]] |
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| == glossing ==
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| Glossing abbreviations.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''1; 2; 3; 4''' - [[wp:Grammatical_person|Person]]
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| * '''ABE''' - [[wp:Abessive_case|Abessive]]
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| * '''ABL''' - [[wp:Ablative_case|Ablative]]
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| * '''ADV''' - [[wp:Adverbial|Adverbial]]
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| * '''AG''' - [[wp:Agent_(grammar)|Agent]]
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| * '''ATT''' - Attemptative
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| * '''AUG''' - [[wp:Augmentative|Augmentative]]
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| * '''BEN''' - [[wp:Benefactive_case|Benefactive]]
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| * '''CAUS''' - [[wp:Causative|Causative]]
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| * '''COL''' - [[wp:Collective_noun|Collective]]
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| * '''COMP''' - [[wp:Comparative|Comparative]]
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| * '''CONJ''' - [[wp:Grammatical_conjunction|Conjunction]]
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| * '''COP''' - [[wp:Copula_(linguistics)|Copula]]
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| * '''DIM''' - [[wp:Diminutive|Diminutive]]
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| * '''DIS''' - [[wp:Future_tense|Distant future tense]]
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| * '''DIST''' - [[wp:Deixis|Distal]]
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| * '''DUB''' - [[wp:Dubitative_mood|Dubitative]]
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| * '''EQU''' - [[wp:Equative_case|Equative]]
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| * '''EXCL''' - [[wp:Clusivity|Exclusive]]
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''FEM''' - [[wp:Grammatical_gender|Feminine]]
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| * '''FUT''' - [[wp:Future_tense|Future tense]]
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| * '''GEN''' - [[wp:Genitive_case|Genitive]]
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| * '''HON''' - [[wp:Honorifics_(linguistics)|Honorific]]
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| * '''HORT''' - [[wp:Hortative|Hortative]]
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| * '''IMM''' - [[wp:Future_tense|Immediate future tense]]
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| * '''IMP''' - [[wp:Imperative_mood|Imperative]]
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| * '''INE''' - [[wp:Inessive_case|Inessive]]
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| * '''IRR''' - [[wp:Irrealis_mood|Irrealis]]
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| * '''LIM''' - Limitative
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| * '''LOC''' - [[wp:Locative_case|Locative]]
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| * '''MASC''' - [[wp:Grammatical_gender|Masculine]]
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| * '''MED''' - [[wp:Deixis|Medial]]
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| * '''NEC''' - [[wp:Necessitative_mood|Necessitative]]
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| * '''NEG''' - [[wp:Affirmative_and_negative|Negative]]
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| * '''P''' / '''O''' - [[wp:Patient_(grammar)|Patient (object)]]
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| * '''PERM''' - [[wp:Permissive_mood|Permissive]]
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| * '''PFV''' - [[wp:Perfective_aspect|Perfective]]
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| * '''POSS''' - [[wp:Possessive|Possessive]]
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| * '''POT''' - [[wp:Irrealis_mood#Potential|Potential]]
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''PREC''' - [[wp:Irrealis_mood#Precative|Precative]]
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| * '''PREP''' - [[wp:Prepositional_case|Prepositional]]
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| * '''PROG''' - [[wp:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|Progressive]]
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| * '''PROX''' - [[wp:Deixis|Proximal]]
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| * '''PST''' - [[wp:Past_tense|Past tense]]
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| * '''REC''' - [[wp:Past_tense|Recent past tense]]
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| * '''RECP''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_(grammar)|Reciprocal]]
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| * '''REFL''' - [[wp:Reflexive_pronoun|Reflexive]]
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| * '''REM''' - [[wp:Past_tense|Remote past tense]]
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| * '''SUG''' - [[wp:Subjunctive_mood|Suggestive Mood]]
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| * '''VOC''' - [[wp:Vocative_case|Vocative]]
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| * '''VOL''' - [[wp:Desiderative_mood|Volitive, Desiderative]]
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| * '''INCH''' - [[wp:Inchoative_aspect|Inchoative]]
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| * '''INS''' - [[wp:Instrumental_case|Instrumental]]
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| * '''INT''' - [[wp:Intensive_word_form|Intensive]]
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| * '''INTERJ''' - [[wp:Interjection|Interjection]]
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| * '''PL''' - [[wp:Plural|Plural]]
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| * '''SG''' - [[wp:Plural|Singular]]
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| * '''SB''' - [[wp:Indefinite_pronoun|Somebody]]
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| * '''STH''' - [[wp:Indefinite_pronoun|Something]]
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| {{col-end}}
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|
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| = phonology =
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|
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| === consonants ===
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| === vowels ===
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| ==== diphthongs ====
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| === syllable structure ===
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| ==== syllables ====
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| === stress ===
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|
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| = word order =
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| = content words =
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|
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| == nouns ==
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| === plural ===
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| === gender ===
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| * [[wp:Grammatical_gender|Gender]] is not normally marked but can be by '''-na''' (FEM), '''-ta''' (MASC), or nouns such as '''naka''', '''tlaka''', '''nahi''', or '''tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. A gender neutral suffix, '''-nta''' may be used when the gender is unknown or ambiguous.
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|
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| == pronouns ==
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|
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| === pronoun declensions ===
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| === demonstratives ===
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| The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show [[Wikipedia:Deixis|deixis]]. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|proximal]] or first person (objects near to the speaker), [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|medial]] or second person (objects near to the addressee), and [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|distal]] or third person (objects far from both).
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''itla''' ('''i-''') - this (near me)
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| * '''uatla''' ('''ua-''') - that (near you)
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| * '''yetla''' ('''ye-''') - that (over there)
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| Examples:
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| * '''imitami''' - <small>PROX-dog-few</small> - ''A few of these dogs''
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| * '''yemitampa''' - <small>DIST-dog-many</small> - ''Many of those dogs (over there)''
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| * '''uamitali''' - <small>MED-dog-each</small> - ''Each of those dogs (near you)''
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| {{col-break}}
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| Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.
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|
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| * '''kua''' ('''-kua''') - all; every; whole
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| * '''oli''' ('''-li''') - each; every
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| * '''ula''' ('''-la''') - whatever; any; some
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| * '''mi''' ('''-mi''') - few; little
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| * '''nke''' ('''-k''') - none
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| * '''mpa''' ('''-mpa''') - many; much; a lot
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| * '''maha''' - more; plus
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| * '''ohi''' - less; fewer
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| {{col-end}}
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| === correlative pronouns ===
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 900px;"
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| |+ uatse
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| |-
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| !
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| ! Proximal<br>'''i-'''
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| ! Medial<br>'''ua-'''
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| ! Distal<br>'''ye-'''
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| ! Inclusive<br>'''-kua'''
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| ! Negative<br>'''-k'''
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| ! Indefinite<br>'''-la'''
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| |-
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| ! mo<br>''place''
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| | '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemua'''<br>over there || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>somewhere; anywhere
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| |-
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| ! ko<br>''person''
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| | '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person<br>(over there) || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>someone; anyone
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| |-
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| ! uku<br>''amount''
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| | '''iku'''<br>this much || '''uaku'''<br>that much || '''-''' || '''kua'''<br>all; every|| '''ok'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>some; any
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| |-
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| ! ama<br>''time''
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| | '''ima'''<br>now, at present || '''uama'''<br>then; at that time || '''-''' || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>sometime; anytime
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| |-
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| ! so<br>''kind, type''
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| | '''iso'''<br>this kind || '''so'o'''<br>that kind || '''yeso'''<br>that kind<br>(over there) || '''sokua'''<br>all kinds || '''sok'''<br>no kind (at all) || '''sola'''<br>some/any kind
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| |-
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| ! no<br>''thing''
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| | '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that<br>(over there) || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''nok'''<br>nothing; none || '''nola'''<br>something; anything
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| |-
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| ! to<br>''manner, way''
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| | '''yoto'''<br>thus; like this; this way|| '''uato'''<br>that way || '''ato'''<br>that way<br>(over there) || '''tokua'''<br>every way || '''tok'''<br>no way || '''tola'''<br>somehow; anyway
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| |}
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|
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| == verbs ==
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|
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| Verbs in Kala are either active or or stative. Active verbs solely denote actions and occurrences and never states in Kala. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an attributive and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result.
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|
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| ==== tense ====
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|
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| Kala has three simple tenses; past, present, and future. Present tense is unmarked. However, past ('''-ye''') and future ('''-tli''') tenses can be modified to include immediate future ("''is about to''..."), distant future ("''will...in a long while''"), recent past ("''just'' ..."), and remote past ("...''a long while ago''"). These distinctions are made with the augmentative and diminutive endings '''-ha''' and '''-hi'''.
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| * The present tense can show immediacy by using the adverb '''ima''', "now; at this time":
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| :'''ima mita ina''' - <small>now dog eat</small> - ''The dog is eating right now.''
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| * If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted.
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| :Example: '''yomaye nam ina''' - <small>yesterday 1pl eat</small> - We ate yesterday.
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|
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
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| |+ eme
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| |-
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| !
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| ! Kala
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| ! gloss
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| ! English
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| |-
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| ! Present
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| | '''mita ina''' || <small>dog eat</small> || ''The dog eats.''
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| |-
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| ! Past
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| | '''mita inaye''' || <small>dog eat-PST</small> || ''The dog ate.''
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| |-
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| ! Recent Past
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| | '''mita inayehi'''<br>or '''-hye''' || <small>dog eat-REC</small> || ''The dog just ate.''<br>(action just finished)
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| |-
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| ! Remote Past
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| | '''mita inayeha''' || <small>dog eat-REM</small> || ''The dog ate long ago.''<br>(before the lifetime of the speaker)
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| |-
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| ! Future
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| | '''mita inatli''' || <small>dog eat-FUT</small> || ''The dog will eat.''
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| |-
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| ! Immediate Future
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| | '''mita inatlihi'''<br>or '''-tlai''' || <small>dog eat-IMM</small> || ''The dog will eat soon.''<br>(within the day)
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| |-
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| ! Distant Future
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| | '''mita inatliha''' || <small>dog eat-DIS</small> || ''The dog will eat a long while from now.''<br>(months from now)
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| |}
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|
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| ==== aspect ====
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|
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| There are four aspects in Kala. The progressive, also called the [[Wikipedia:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|continuous]] ['''CONT'''], this is used to express an incomplete action or state in progress at a specific time. It is marked with '''-nko''', from '''nkoso''' - "to continue; proceed; progress". The [[Wikipedia:Perfective_aspect|perfective]] aspect indicates that an action is completed ['''PFV''']. It is often translated by the English present perfect (''have done some-thing''). It is marked with '''-pua''', from '''opua''' - "to end; finish; complete". The [[Wikipedia:Inchoative_aspect|inchoative]] aspect refers to the beginning of a state ['''INCH''']. It is marked with '''-mu''', from '''mula''' - "to begin; start; initiate". The [[Wikipedia:Frequentative|frequentative]] aspect refers to a repeated action ['''FREQ''']. It is marked with '''-nua''', from '''nua''' - "frequent; often; regular".
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
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| |+ ti'a
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| |-
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| !
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| ! Kala
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| ! gloss
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| ! English
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| |-
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| ! Progressive
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| | '''mita inanko''' || <small>dog eat-CONT</small> || ''The dog is eating.''
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| |-
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| ! Perfective
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| | '''mita inapua''' || <small>dog eat-PFV</small> || ''The dog has eaten.''
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| |-
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| ! Inchoative
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| | '''mita inamu''' || <small>dog eat-INCH</small> || ''The dog begins to eat.''
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| |-
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| ! Frequentative
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| | '''mita inanua''' || <small>dog eat-FREQ</small> || ''The dog eats often.''
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| |}
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|
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| ==== mood ====
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| The negative mood (always marked finally) is indicated by the suffix –'''k''' or '''–nke''' (when the last syllable contains /k/).
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| * '''mita inayek''' - <small>dog eat-PST-NEG</small> - ''The dog did not eat.''
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| * '''mita mokunke''' - <small>dog sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog does not sleep.''
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|
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| ==== affix ordering ====
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|
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| Verbs can be marked with several suffixes to add or change meaning. The modals and tense affixes can be added in different order to a verb to create a new meaning…their placement is not always fixed. The negative, adjectival, and plural ending are always final, while other affixes can be varied, but in general they should be ordered:
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|
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| <tt>STEM-(SIZE/IMPORTANCE)-(MOOD)-(ASPECT)-(TENSE)-(NEGATIVE)</tt>
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|
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| Example:
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
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| |+
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| |-
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| ! Verb Stem
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| ! Size/Importance
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| ! Mood
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| ! Aspect
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| ! Tense
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| ! Negative
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| |-
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| | '''empa''' || '''-hi''' || '''-pa''' || '''-nko''' || '''-ye''' || '''-k'''
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| |-
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| | run || DIM || ABIL || PROG || PST || NEG
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| |}
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|
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| * '''na empahipankoyek'''
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| : <small>1SG run-DIM-able-PROG-PST-NEG</small>
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| : ''I was not able to keep jogging.''
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|
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| === adjectives ===
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| Kala does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives. This leaves open to interpretation many phrases.
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| {{Col-begin}}
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| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''mita inya''' - <small>dog be.hungry</small>
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| ** ''The dog hungers.''
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| ** ''The dog is hungry.''
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| ** ''The hungry dog.''
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| ** ''A hungry dog.''
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| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''tsaka ketlahi''' - <small>house be.red-DIM</small>
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| ** ''The house is a little red.''
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| ** ''The light-red house.''
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| ** ''A pale red house.''
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| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''taki saua''' - <small>coat be.wet</small>
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| ** ''The coat is wet.''
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| ** ''The wet coat.''
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| ** ''A wet coat.''
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| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''umalo tahaku''' - <small>horse-PL be.big-extreme</small>
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| ** ''The horses are extremely large.''
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| ** ''The very big horses.''
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| {{Col-end}}
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| ==== comparison ====
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| In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the [[Wikipedia:Elative_(gradation)|elative]]. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka'''
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| : <small>house 3sg.POSS O 1sg.POSS big-AUG</small>
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| : ''His house is bigger than mine.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ke mauam tayo yanaha'''
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| : <small>O flower.PL 2sg.POSS yellow-AUG</small>
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| : ''Your flowers are the most yellow.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''iyapo ke tsaka tayo pakoha'''
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| : <small>PROX-building O home 2sg new-AUG</small>
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| : ''This building is newer than your home.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| ==== relative ====
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| In a relative clause, the verb has the suffix '''-tle''' (or '''-le''' if the final syllable contains /tl/) added to it. The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses. The use of participles in Kala is rather different than in English and at first sight is difficult to understand. This is mainly due to the fact that the relative pronouns ''who, what, which, where'' are not used in Kala as in English.
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|
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| * '''yalapa''' - ''to be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapatle''' - ''who/which/that can walk''
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| * '''yalapak''' - ''to not be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapanketle''' - ''who/which/that can't walk''
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| This nominalizes the verb in some cases, and makes it possible for it to be either the subject or the object.
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|
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| * '''na ke tlaka nya inama talatle unya'''
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| : <small>1sg O man for eat-time come-REL know</small>
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| : ''I know the man who is coming to lunch.''
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|
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| * '''ke naka patlole pako'''
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| : <small>O woman sweep-REL young</small>
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| : ''The woman who is sweeping is young.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| The relative suffix is most often in the final position. In some cases, it may be followed by the negative '''-k'''.
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|
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| * '''itsaka na sutahuetle'''
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| : <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-REL</small>
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| : ''This is the house in which I live.''
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|
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| * '''itsaka na sutahueyetlek'''
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| : <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-PST-REL-NEG</small>
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| : ''This is the house in which I did not live.''
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| {{col-end}}
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|
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| === adpositionals ===
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| Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. There is one general locative (-'''hue''') which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”. Here are some common verbs used as [[wp:Preposition_and_postposition|adpositions]]:
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| {{Col-begin}}
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| {{Col-2}}
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| * '''pahe''' - against; touching
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| * '''pa'e''' - apart from; other than; except for
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| * '''paye''' - beyond; exceeding; farther than
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| * '''pue''' - after; back; behind; rear
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| * '''tahe''' - below; beneath; under
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| * '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at [moving toward]
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| * '''kaye''' - around; encircling; surrounding
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| * '''mahe''' - around; approximate; close to
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| * '''ma'a''' - with [accompanied by / furnished with]
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| * '''ma'e''' - before; in front
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| * '''maye''' - between; among
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| {{Col-2}}
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| * '''nahe ''' - in [located inside of]; internal
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| * '''nyaue''' - outside of; exterior to
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| * '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
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| * '''saye''' - along; following [a line]
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| * '''hue / -hue''' - at [in the same location as] [LOC]
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| * '''tsa'e''' - across; through
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| * '''ua'e''' - above; over / on
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| * '''uaye''' - from [moving out of or away from]
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| * '''ya'e''' - near; close to
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| * '''yomo''' - to the right of
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| * '''yoso''' - to the left of
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| {{Col-end}}
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|
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| == numbers ==
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|
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| = function words =
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|
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| == particles ==
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|
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| ==== ke ====
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|
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| The most common particle in Kala. It marks the object...
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|
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| == conjunctions ==
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| There are three coordinating conjunctions in Kala and three correlative conjunctions:
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| === coordinating ===
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| * '''ma''' - and; also
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| :: '''mita ina ma moku''' - <small>dog eat and sleep</small> - ''The dog eats and sleeps.''
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| * '''ua''' - or
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| :: '''mita ina ua moku''' - <small>dog eat or sleep</small> - ''The dog eats or sleeps.''
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| * '''ehe''' ('''me''') - but; yet
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| :: '''mita ina me mokunke''' - <small>dog eat but sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog eats but does not sleep.''
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| {{col-break}}
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|
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| === correlative ===
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| * '''yema''' - both X and Y
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| :: '''mita ina yema empa''' - <small>dog eat both.X.and.Y run</small> - ''The dog eats and runs.''
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| * '''ue''' - either X or Y
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| :: '''mita ina ue empa''' - <small>dog eat either.X.or.Y run</small> - ''The dog is either eating or running.''
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| * '''uenke''' ('''uek''') - neither X nor Y
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| :: '''mita ina uenke empa''' - <small>dog eat neither.X.nor.Y run</small> - ''The dog is neither eating nor running.''
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| {{col-end}}
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|
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| == interjections ==
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|
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| The most common interjections in Kala are as follows;
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|
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| * '''kya''' - imperative particle
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| * '''kyo''' - imperative particle
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| * '''kyo'a''' - imperative particle
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|
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| * '''nka''' - emphatic negative
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| * '''ya''' - vocative particle
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| * '''a''' - affirmative
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| * '''aya''' - expresses strong emotions such as surprise ('ah', 'argh') and pain ('ow')
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|
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| = questions =
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| The other type contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':
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|
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
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| |+ kanyo
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| |-
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| !
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| ! Kala
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| ! gloss
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| ! English
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| |-
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| ! object
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| | '''ke mita ina ka''' || <small>O dog eat Q</small> || ''What does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! person
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| | '''ko ina ka''' || <small>person eat Q</small> || ''Who eats?''
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| |-
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| ! possession
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| | '''koyo mita ina ka''' || <small>person-POSS dog eat Q</small> || ''Whose dog eats?''
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| |-
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| ! manner
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| | '''to mita ina ka''' || <small>manner dog eat Q</small> || ''How does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! place
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| | '''mo mita ina ka''' || <small>place dog eat Q</small> || ''Where does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! reason
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| | '''nye mita ina ka''' || <small>reason dog eat Q</small> || ''Why does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! time
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| | '''ama mita ina ka''' || <small>time dog eat Q</small> || ''When does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! amount
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| | '''uku mita ina ka''' || <small>amount dog eat Q</small> || ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
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| |-
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| ! which
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| | '''ula mita ina ka''' || <small>any dog eat Q</small> || ''Which dog eats?''
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| |}
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|
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| = syntax =
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| == intransitive ==
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| == transitive ==
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| == negation ==
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| [[Category:Conlangs]] | | [[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Conscripts]][[Category:Kala]] |
