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| {{Kala 2}} | | {{Kala 2}} |
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| | {{wip}} |
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| | <big>'''THIS SECTION IS CURRENTLY BEING UPDATED TO REFLECT A NEW GRAMMAR.'''</big> |
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| The Kala conlang... | | The Kala conlang... |
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| * [[Kala/calendar|calendar]] | | * [[Kala/calendar|calendar]] |
| | * [[Kala/chat|conversations]] |
| * [[Kala/etymology|etymology]] | | * [[Kala/etymology|etymology]] |
| | ** [[Kala/roots|roots]] |
| * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] | | * [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]] |
| | ** [[Kala/affixes|affixes]] |
| ** [[Kala/lexicon/theme|thematic lexicon]] | | ** [[Kala/lexicon/theme|thematic lexicon]] |
| | * [[Kala/particles|particles]] |
| * [[Kala/phrases|phrases]] | | * [[Kala/phrases|phrases]] |
| * [[Kala/syllables|syllables]]
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| * [[Kala/affixes|word formation]] | | * [[Kala/affixes|word formation]] |
| * [[Kala/writing|writing]] | | * [[Kala/writing|writing]] |
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| = introduction =
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| Kala is a personal [[Wikipedia:Constructed_language|conlang]] (actually more of an [[Wikipedia:Artistic_language#Personal_languages|artlang]]), based on my aesthetic preferences, not attached to any [[Wikipedia:Worldbuilding|conworld]] or conculture. This language draws on natlangs (natural language), other conlangs, and of course imagination. Kala was started in late 2009. The phonemic inventory is based on Classical Nahuatl while the syllable structure and vowels are based on the strict (C)V structure of Japanese, and the presence of prenasalized stops is influenced by Bantu languages. Kala’s grammar was initially based on Japanese but has changed based on influence from several natural and constructed languages. Many – if not most – of Kala lexemes are derived or inspired by natural languages. A few have been taken from previous projects or constructed languages such as '''Ajara''' (a cipherlang from my youth), '''[[Qatama]]''' (a conlang that I abandoned several years ago).
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| == characteristics ==
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| Kala is a context-oriented language. In most cases, the more important elements of a phrase are clustered toward the end of the sentence (e.g. verbs and their modifiers). The less important an element is to the understanding of a sentence, the more likely it is to be dropped. Consequently, many Kala sentences end-up consisting solely of a verb (or adjectival verb). More so in conversation than in written Kala, these short phrases are grammatically correct and natural. Here are some examples:
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| * '''muya ka''' - <small>do Q</small> - ''(What are you) doing?''
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| * '''ina''' - <small>eat</small> - ''(I am) eating.''
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| * '''tamatse''' - <small>good-seem</small> - ''(That looks) good.''
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| * '''ueha ka''' - <small>want Q</small> - ''(Do you) want (some)?''
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| * '''nyasak''' - <small>thank-NEG</small> - ''No, thank (you).''
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| Notice that none of the above contain any pronouns, or nouns. Any contextually understood elements may be omitted unless indispensable.
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| == parts of speech ==
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| Kala has two parts of speech. Nouns and verbs are [[wp:Content_word|content words]], while particles (and others) tend to be only [[wp:Function_word|functional]]. Many content words can be used as both nouns and verbs. The best, and most common example would be '''ina''' (food; to eat).
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| * '''na ina''' - <small>1SG eat</small> - ''I eat.''
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| ** '''na ke ina anya''' - <small>1SG O food see</small> - ''I see the food.''
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| == borrowing ==
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| Kala borrows extensively from various natural languages. This is a very small sample of borrowings:
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| ''See also: [[Kala/etymology|etymology]]''
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| * '''kala''' – ''to speak, talk, converse''; from Arabic [[Wiktionary:تكلم|''takallama'']]
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| * '''na''' – ''I, me''; from Arabic [[Wiktionary:أنا|''ʾanā'']]
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| * '''pato''' – ''duck (Anatidae)''; from Spanish [[Wiktionary:pato|''pato'']]
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| * '''tsenka''' – ''orange''; from Chinese [[Wiktionary:橙|''chéng'']]
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| * '''uasi''' – ''to take, get, acquire''; from Lakota [[Wiktionary:wasi'chu|''wasichu'']]
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| * '''myonta''' – ''to allow, permit''; from Finnish [[Wiktionary:myöntää|''myöntää'']]
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| * '''a''' – ''to be, exist, yes''; from Japanese [[Wiktionary:ある|''aru'']]
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| == glossing ==
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| Glossing abbreviations.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''1; 2; 3; 4''' - [[wp:Grammatical_person|Person]]
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| * '''ABE''' - [[wp:Abessive_case|Abessive]]
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| * '''ABL''' - [[wp:Ablative_case|Ablative]]
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| * '''ADV''' - [[wp:Adverbial|Adverbial]]
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| * '''AG''' - [[wp:Agent_(grammar)|Agent]]
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| * '''ATT''' - Attemptative
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| * '''AUG''' - [[wp:Augmentative|Augmentative]]
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| * '''BEN''' - [[wp:Benefactive_case|Benefactive]]
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| * '''CAUS''' - [[wp:Causative|Causative]]
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| * '''COL''' - [[wp:Collective_noun|Collective]]
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| * '''COMP''' - [[wp:Comparative|Comparative]]
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''CONJ''' - [[wp:Grammatical_conjunction|Conjunction]]
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| * '''COP''' - [[wp:Copula_(linguistics)|Copula]]
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| * '''DIM''' - [[wp:Diminutive|Diminutive]]
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| * '''DIS''' - [[wp:Future_tense|Distant future tense]]
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| * '''DIST''' - [[wp:Deixis|Distal]]
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| * '''DUB''' - [[wp:Dubitative_mood|Dubitative]]
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| * '''EQU''' - [[wp:Equative_case|Equative]]
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| * '''EXCL''' - [[wp:Clusivity|Exclusive]]
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| * '''FEM''' - [[wp:Grammatical_gender|Feminine]]
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| * '''FUT''' - [[wp:Future_tense|Future tense]]
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| * '''GEN''' - [[wp:Genitive_case|Genitive]]
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''HON''' - [[wp:Honorifics_(linguistics)|Honorific]]
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| * '''HORT''' - [[wp:Hortative|Hortative]]
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| * '''IMM''' - [[wp:Future_tense|Immediate future tense]]
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| * '''IMP''' - [[wp:Imperative_mood|Imperative]]
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| * '''INE''' - [[wp:Inessive_case|Inessive]]
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| * '''MASC''' - [[wp:Grammatical_gender|Masculine]]
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| * '''MED''' - [[wp:Deixis|Medial]]
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| * '''PROX''' - [[wp:Deixis|Proximal]]
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| * '''PST''' - [[wp:Past_tense|Past tense]]
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| * '''REC''' - [[wp:Past_tense|Recent past tense]]
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| * '''REM''' - [[wp:Past_tense|Remote past tense]]
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| {{col-end}}
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| = phonology =
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| === consonants ===
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| * Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
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| {|class=wikitable style="text-align: center; width:40%;"
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| |+Consonants
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| !
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| !Labial
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| !colspan=2|Alveolar
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| !Palatal
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| !Velar
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| !Glottal
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| |-
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| ! Nasal
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| | m ('''m''')
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| |colspan=2|n ('''n''')
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| | ɲ ('''ny''')
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| |-
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| ! Plosive
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| | p~b ('''p''')
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| |colspan=2|t~d ('''t''')
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| | k~g ('''g''')
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| | ʔ (''' ' ''')
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| |-
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| ! Affricate
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| | ts~t͡ʃ ('''ts''') || t͡ɬ~tl ('''tl''')
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| |-
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| ! Continuant
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| | s~ʃ ('''s''') || l~ɾ ('''l''')
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| | h~ɦ ('''h''')
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| |-
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| ! Semivowel
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| |colspan=2|
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| | j ('''y''')
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| | w ('''u''')
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| |}
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| * '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
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| * '''Labialized''':/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
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| * '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/
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| <small>Note: Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short.</small>
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| === vowels ===
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |+Vowels
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| !
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| !'''Front'''
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| !'''Back'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Close'''
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| |{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~u:}} '''(u)'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Mid'''
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| |{{IPA|e~ɛ}} '''(e)''' || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)'''
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| |-align=center
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| !'''Open'''
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| |colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~a:}} '''(a)'''
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| |}
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| '''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
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| ==== diphthongs ====
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| Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] and [aʊ̯], but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa], [we], [ja], [je], and [jo]. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] and [jaʊ̯] are very rare but should be noted as possible.
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| === syllable structure ===
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| '''Kala''' words are typically made up of [[wp:Syllable#Open_and_closed|open syllables]] of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most words having syllables exclusively of this type. There is a limited set of syllables allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese.
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| * /l/ cannot occur word initially (except in loan words and [[wp:Toponymy|toponyms]]).
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| ==== syllables ====
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| {| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;"
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| |+the 136 basic Kala syllables
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| |-
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| !
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| ! a
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| ! e
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| ! i
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| ! o
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| ! u
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| ! ua
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| ! ue
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| ! ya
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| ! ye
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| ! yo
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| ! ai
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| ! ao
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| ! uai
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| ! yao
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| |-
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| ! p
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| | align="center"|''(m)pa''
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| | align="center"|''(m)pe''
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| | align="center"|''(m)pi''
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| | align="center"|''(m)po''
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| | align="center"|''(m)pu''
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| | align="center"|''pua''
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| | align="center"|''pue''
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| | align="center"|''pya''
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| | align="center"|''pye''
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| | align="center"|''pyo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''pai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''pao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''puai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''pyao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! t
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| | align="center"|''(n)ta''
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| | align="center"|''(n)te''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ti''
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| | align="center"|''(n)to''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tao''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! k
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| | align="center"|''(n)ka''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ke''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ki''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ko''
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| | align="center"|''(n)ku''
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| | align="center"|''kua''
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| | align="center"|''kue''
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| | align="center"|''kya''
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| | align="center"|''kye''
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| | align="center"|''kyo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''kai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''kao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''kuai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''kyao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! m
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| | align="center"|''ma''
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| | align="center"|''me''
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| | align="center"|''mi''
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| | align="center"|''mo''
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| | align="center"|''mu''
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| | align="center"|''mua''
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| | align="center"|''mue''
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| | align="center"|''mya''
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| | align="center"|''mye''
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| | align="center"|''myo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''mai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''mao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''muai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''myao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! n
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| | align="center"|''na''
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| | align="center"|''ne''
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| | align="center"|''ni''
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| | align="center"|''no''
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| | align="center"|''nu''
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| | align="center"|''nua''
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| | align="center"|''nue''
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| | align="center"|''nya''
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| | align="center"|''nye''
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| | align="center"|''nyo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''nai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''nao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''nuai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''nyao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! s
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| | align="center"|''sa''
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| | align="center"|''se''
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| | align="center"|''si''
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| | align="center"|''so''
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| | align="center"|''su''
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| | align="center"|''sua''
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| | align="center"|''sue''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''sai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''sao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''suai''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! h
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| | align="center"|''ha''
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| | align="center"|''he''
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| | align="center"|''hi''
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| | align="center"|''ho''
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| | align="center"|''hu''
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| | align="center"|''hua''
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| | align="center"|''hue''
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| | align="center"|''hya''
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| | align="center"|''hye''
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| | align="center"|''hyo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''hai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''hao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''huai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''hyao''</font>
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| |-
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| ! ts
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| | align="center"|''tsa''
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| | align="center"|''tse''
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| | align="center"|''tsi''
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| | align="center"|''tso''
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| | align="center"|''tsu''
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| | align="center"|''tsua''
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| | align="center"|''tsue''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tsai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tsao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tsuai''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! tl
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| | align="center"|''tla''
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| | align="center"|''tle''
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| | align="center"|''tli''
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| | align="center"|''tlo''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tlai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''tlao''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! l
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| | align="center"|''la''
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| | align="center"|''le''
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| | align="center"|''li''
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| | align="center"|''lo''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''lai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''lao''</font>
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| | align="center"|'' ''
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| |-
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| ! -
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| | align="center"|''a''
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| | align="center"|''e''
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| | align="center"|''i''
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| | align="center"|''o''
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| | align="center"|''u''
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| | align="center"|''ua''
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| | align="center"|''ue''
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| | align="center"|''ya''
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| | align="center"|''ye''
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| | align="center"|''yo''
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''ai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''ao''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''uai''</font>
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| | align="center"|<font color="red">''yao''</font>
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| |}
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| <small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word.</small>
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| === stress ===
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| [[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV).
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| = orthography =
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| * Kala conscripts are many and varied. Rather than multiple pages explaining each of them, [[Kala/writing|'''this''']] page serves as a working list with a consistent example across each script.
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|
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| = word order =
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|
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| The basic structure of a '''Kala''' sentence is:
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| AGENT--PATIENT--VERB (or [[wp:Subject–object–verb|'''SOV''']])
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| The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:
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| * '''mita tlaka anya''' - <small>dog man see</small> - ''The dog sees the man.''
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| * '''tlaka mita anya''' - <small>man dog see</small> - ''The man sees the dog.''
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| In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.
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|
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| = content words =
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|
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| == nouns ==
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|
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| === plural ===
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|
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| * Nouns can be marked [[wp:Plural|plural]] ('''PL''') by '''-m''' (or '''-lo''' if the final syllable contains /m/ or /p/, or, if the word begins with a vowel).
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| ** In general the plural suffix is not used when the plurality of the noun is clear from context. For example, while the English sentence "there are three dogs" would use the plural "dogs" instead of the singular "dog", the '''Kala''' sentence '''mita ha'o a''' "dog three exist" keeps the word '''mita''' "dog" in its unmarked form, as the numeral makes the plural marker redundant.
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| ** The collective plural is marked by '''tli'''-, derived from '''tatli''', meaning ''group; collection; gathering''. It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the [[wp:Collective_noun|collective]] plural ('''COL''').
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| * '''ata''' - name > '''atalo''' - names
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| * '''mita''' – dog > '''mitam''' - dogs > '''tlimita''' – pack of dogs
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| * '''yama''' – mountain > '''tliyamalo''' – mountain ranges
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| * '''tsaka''' – house > '''tlitsaka''' – neighborhood
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| * '''puku''' – clothing > '''tlipuku''' – wardrobe
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|
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| === gender ===
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|
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| * [[wp:Grammatical_gender|Gender]] is not normally marked but can be by '''-na''' (FEM), '''-ta''' (MASC), or nouns such as '''naka''', '''tlaka''', '''nahi''', or '''tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. A gender neutral suffix, '''-nta''' may be used when the gender is unknown or ambiguous.
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| == pronouns ==
| |
| '''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. There is a special pronoun '''na'am''' which is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| Personal pronouns:
| |
|
| |
| * '''na''' - 1st person
| |
| * '''ta''' - 2nd person
| |
| * '''ha''' - 3rd person
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| * '''tla''' - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for [[wp:Animacy|inanimate]] nouns)
| |
| <small>''[[Kala/syllables#Personal_Pronouns|Here]] is a chart with all regular declensions of Kala pronouns.''</small>
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| {{col-break}}
| |
| Modifiers:
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|
| |
| * '''-m''' - plural
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| * '''-nku''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_pronoun|reciprocal]] (only attaches to plural pronouns)
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| * '''e-''' - patient
| |
| * '''-i''' - reflexive
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| * '''-yo''' - possessive
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| {{col-break}}
| |
| Other pronouns include:
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|
| |
| * '''tlokua''' - everyone, everybody
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| * '''kola''' - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
| |
| * '''tlok''' - no one, nobody
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| * '''nokua''' - everything
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| * '''nola''' - something; whatever, anything
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| * '''nok''' - nothing
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| {{col-end}}
| |
| === demonstratives ===
| |
| The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show [[Wikipedia:Deixis|deixis]]. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|proximal]] or first person (objects near to the speaker), [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|medial]] or second person (objects near to the addressee), and [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|distal]] or third person (objects far from both).
| |
|
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''itla''' ('''i-''') - this (near me)
| |
| * '''uatla''' ('''ua-''') - that (near you)
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| * '''yetla''' ('''ye-''') - that (over there)
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|
| |
| Examples:
| |
|
| |
| * '''imitami''' - <small>PROX-dog-few</small> - ''A few of these dogs''
| |
| * '''yemitampa''' - <small>DIST-dog-many</small> - ''Many of those dogs (over there)''
| |
| * '''uamitali''' - <small>MED-dog-each</small> - ''Each of those dogs (near you)''
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| {{col-break}}
| |
| Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.
| |
|
| |
| * '''kua''' ('''-kua''') - all; every; whole
| |
| * '''oli''' ('''-li''') - each; every
| |
| * '''ula''' ('''-la''') - whatever; any; some
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| * '''mi''' ('''-mi''') - few; little
| |
| * '''nke''' ('''-k''') - none
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| * '''mpa''' ('''-mpa''') - many; much; a lot
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| * '''maha''' - more; plus
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| * '''ohi''' - less; fewer
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| {{col-end}}
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|
| |
| == verbs ==
| |
|
| |
| Verbs in Kala are either active or or stative. Active verbs solely denote actions and occurrences and never states in Kala. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an attributive and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result.
| |
|
| |
| ==== tense ====
| |
|
| |
| Kala has three simple tenses; past, present, and future. Present tense is unmarked. However, past ('''-ye''') and future ('''-tli''') tenses can be modified to include immediate future ("''is about to''..."), distant future ("''will...in a long while''"), recent past ("''just'' ..."), and remote past ("...''a long while ago''"). These distinctions are made with the augmentative and diminutive endings '''-ha''' and '''-hi'''.
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|
| |
| * The present tense can show immediacy by using the adverb '''ima''', "now; at this time":
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| :'''ima mita ina''' - <small>now dog eat</small> - ''The dog is eating right now.''
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|
| |
| * If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted.
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| :Example: '''yomaye nam ina''' - <small>yesterday 1pl eat</small> - We ate yesterday.
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|
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| |
| |+ eme
| |
| |-
| |
| !
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! gloss
| |
| ! English
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Present
| |
| | '''mita ina''' || <small>dog eat</small> || ''The dog eats.''
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| |-
| |
| ! Past
| |
| | '''mita inaye''' || <small>dog eat-PST</small> || ''The dog ate.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Recent Past
| |
| | '''mita inayehi'''<br>or '''-hye''' || <small>dog eat-REC</small> || ''The dog just ate.''<br>(action just finished)
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Remote Past
| |
| | '''mita inayeha''' || <small>dog eat-REM</small> || ''The dog ate long ago.''<br>(before the lifetime of the speaker)
| |
| |-
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| ! Future
| |
| | '''mita inatli''' || <small>dog eat-FUT</small> || ''The dog will eat.''
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| |-
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| ! Immediate Future
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| | '''mita inatlihi'''<br>or '''-tlai''' || <small>dog eat-IMM</small> || ''The dog will eat soon.''<br>(within the day)
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Distant Future
| |
| | '''mita inatliha''' || <small>dog eat-DIS</small> || ''The dog will eat a long while from now.''<br>(months from now)
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| ==== aspect ====
| |
|
| |
| There are four aspects in Kala. The progressive, also called the [[Wikipedia:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|continuous]] ['''CONT'''], this is used to express an incomplete action or state in progress at a specific time. It is marked with '''-nko''', from '''nkoso''' - "to continue; proceed; progress". The [[Wikipedia:Perfective_aspect|perfective]] aspect indicates that an action is completed ['''PFV''']. It is often translated by the English present perfect (''have done some-thing''). It is marked with '''-pua''', from '''opua''' - "to end; finish; complete". The [[Wikipedia:Inchoative_aspect|inchoative]] aspect refers to the beginning of a state ['''INCH''']. It is marked with '''-mu''', from '''mula''' - "to begin; start; initiate". The [[Wikipedia:Frequentative|frequentative]] aspect refers to a repeated action ['''FREQ''']. It is marked with '''-nua''', from '''nua''' - "frequent; often; regular".
| |
|
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| |
| |+ ti'a
| |
| |-
| |
| !
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! gloss
| |
| ! English
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Progressive
| |
| | '''mita inanko''' || <small>dog eat-CONT</small> || ''The dog is eating.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Perfective
| |
| | '''mita inapua''' || <small>dog eat-PFV</small> || ''The dog has eaten.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Inchoative
| |
| | '''mita inamu''' || <small>dog eat-INCH</small> || ''The dog begins to eat.''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Frequentative
| |
| | '''mita inanua''' || <small>dog eat-FREQ</small> || ''The dog eats often.''
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| ==== mood ====
| |
|
| |
| The negative mood (always marked finally) is indicated by the suffix –'''k''' or '''–nke''' (when the last syllable contains /k/).
| |
|
| |
| * '''mita inayek''' - <small>dog eat-PST-NEG</small> - ''The dog did not eat.''
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| * '''mita mokunke''' - <small>dog sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog does not sleep.''
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|
| |
| ==== affix ordering ====
| |
|
| |
| Verbs can be marked with several suffixes to add or change meaning. The modals and tense affixes can be added in different order to a verb to create a new meaning…their placement is not always fixed. The negative, adjectival, and plural ending are always final, while other affixes can be varied, but in general they should be ordered:
| |
|
| |
| <tt>STEM-(SIZE/IMPORTANCE)-(MOOD)-(ASPECT)-(TENSE)-(NEGATIVE)</tt>
| |
|
| |
| Example:
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|
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| |
| |+
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Verb Stem
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| ! Size/Importance
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| ! Mood
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| ! Aspect
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| ! Tense
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| ! Negative
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| |-
| |
| | '''empa''' || '''-hi''' || '''-pa''' || '''-nko''' || '''-ye''' || '''-k'''
| |
| |-
| |
| | run || DIM || ABIL || PROG || PST || NEG
| |
| |}
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|
| |
| * '''na empahipankoyek'''
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| : <small>1SG run-DIM-able-PROG-PST-NEG</small>
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| : ''I was not able to keep jogging.''
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|
| |
| === adjectives ===
| |
| Kala does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives. This leaves open to interpretation many phrases.
| |
| {{Col-begin}}
| |
| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''mita inya''' - <small>dog be.hungry</small>
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| ** ''The dog hungers.''
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| ** ''The dog is hungry.''
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| ** ''The hungry dog.''
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| ** ''A hungry dog.''
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| {{Col-break}}
| |
| * '''tsaka ketlahi''' - <small>house be.red-DIM</small>
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| ** ''The house is a little red.''
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| ** ''The light-red house.''
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| ** ''A pale red house.''
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| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''taki saua''' - <small>coat be.wet</small>
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| ** ''The coat is wet.''
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| ** ''The wet coat.''
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| ** ''A wet coat.''
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| {{Col-break}}
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| * '''umalo tahaku''' - <small>horse-PL be.big-extreme</small>
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| ** ''The horses are extremely large.''
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| ** ''The very big horses.''
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| {{Col-end}}
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| ==== comparison ====
| |
| In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the [[Wikipedia:Elative_(gradation)|elative]]. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka'''
| |
| : <small>house 3sg.POSS O 1sg.POSS big-AUG</small>
| |
| : ''His house is bigger than mine.''
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| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ke mauam tayo yanaha'''
| |
| : <small>O flower.PL 2sg.POSS yellow-AUG</small>
| |
| : ''Your flowers are the most yellow.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''iyapo ke tsaka tayo pakoha'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-building O home 2sg new-AUG</small>
| |
| : ''This building is newer than your home.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| ==== relative ====
| |
| In a relative clause, the verb has the suffix '''-tle''' (or '''-le''' if the final syllable contains /tl/) added to it. The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses. The use of participles in Kala is rather different than in English and at first sight is difficult to understand. This is mainly due to the fact that the relative pronouns ''who, what, which, where'' are not used in Kala as in English.
| |
|
| |
| * '''yalapa''' - ''to be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapatle''' - ''who/which/that can walk''
| |
| * '''yalapak''' - ''to not be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapanketle''' - ''who/which/that can't walk''
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| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
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| This nominalizes the verb in some cases, and makes it possible for it to be either the subject or the object.
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|
| |
| * '''na ke tlaka nya inama talatle unya'''
| |
| : <small>1sg O man for eat-time come-REL know</small>
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| : ''I know the man who is coming to lunch.''
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|
| |
| * '''ke naka patlole pako'''
| |
| : <small>O woman sweep-REL young</small>
| |
| : ''The woman who is sweeping is young.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| The relative suffix is most often in the final position. In some cases, it may be followed by the negative '''-k'''.
| |
|
| |
| * '''itsaka na sutahuetle'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-REL</small>
| |
| : ''This is the house in which I live.''
| |
|
| |
| * '''itsaka na sutahueyetlek'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-PST-REL-NEG</small>
| |
| : ''This is the house in which I did not live.''
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| {{col-end}}
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|
| |
| === adpositionals ===
| |
| Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. There is one general locative (-'''hue''') which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”. Here are some common verbs used as [[wp:Preposition_and_postposition|adpositions]]:
| |
| {{Col-begin}}
| |
| {{Col-2}}
| |
| * '''pahe''' - against; touching
| |
| * '''pa'e''' - apart from; other than; except for
| |
| * '''paye''' - beyond; exceeding; farther than
| |
| * '''pue''' - after; back; behind; rear
| |
| * '''tahe''' - below; beneath; under
| |
| * '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at [moving toward]
| |
| * '''kaye''' - around; encircling; surrounding
| |
| * '''mahe''' - around; approximate; close to
| |
| * '''ma'a''' - with [accompanied by / furnished with]
| |
| * '''ma'e''' - before; in front
| |
| * '''maye''' - between; among
| |
| {{Col-2}}
| |
| * '''nahe ''' - in [located inside of]; internal
| |
| * '''nyaue''' - outside of; exterior to
| |
| * '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
| |
| * '''saye''' - along; following [a line]
| |
| * '''hue / -hue''' - at [in the same location as] [LOC]
| |
| * '''tsa'e''' - across; through
| |
| * '''ua'e''' - above; over / on
| |
| * '''uaye''' - from [moving out of or away from]
| |
| * '''ya'e''' - near; close to
| |
| * '''yomo''' - to the right of
| |
| * '''yoso''' - to the left of
| |
| {{Col-end}}
| |
|
| |
| == numbers ==
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
| |
| |+ uku
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! number
| |
| ! English
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! number
| |
| ! English
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! number
| |
| ! English
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ye'o''' || 0 || zero || '''tsa'o''' || 6 || six || '''nya'o''' || 500 || five hundred
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''ka'o''' || 7 || seven || '''tle'o''' || 10<sup>3</sup> || (one) thousand
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ta'o''' || 2 || two || '''pa'o''' || 8 || eight || '''mue'o''' || 10<sup>4</sup> || ten thousand
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ha'o''' || 3 || three || '''sa'o''' || 9 || nine || '''kye'o''' || 10<sup>5</sup> || (one) hundred thousand
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ma'o''' || 4 || four || '''ue'o''' || 10 || ten || '''nte'o''' || 10<sup>6</sup> || (one) million
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ya'o''' || 5 || five || '''nye'o''' || 100 || (one) hundred || '''hue'o''' || 10<sup>9</sup> || (one) billion
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| === forming larger numbers ===
| |
|
| |
| * '''uena'o''' - eleven / 11
| |
| * '''taue'o''' - twenty / 20
| |
| * '''nyeka'o''' - one hundred seven / 107
| |
| * '''hanyetauetsa'o''' (''long form'') / '''hatatsa'o''' (''short form'') - three hundred twenty six / 326
| |
| * '''tsatletauema'o''' - six thousand and twenty four / 6024
| |
|
| |
| === other number forms ===
| |
|
| |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| |
| |+
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! number
| |
| ! English
| |
| ! ordinal
| |
| ! multiple
| |
| ! fractional
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''kina'o'''<br>first || '''tina'o'''<br>once || -
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ueta'o''' || 12 || twelve || '''kiueta'o'''<br>twelfth || '''tiueta'o'''<br>twelve times || '''iueta'o'''<br>a twelfth
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''yauema'o'''<br>'''(yama'o)''' || 54 || fifty four || '''kiyama'o'''<br>fifty fourth || '''tiyama'o'''<br>54 times || '''iyama'o'''<br>a fifty fourth
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''nyetsa'o''' || 106 || one hundred (and) six || '''kinyetsa'o'''<br>106<sup>th</sup> || '''tinyetsa'o'''<br>106 times || '''inyetsa'o'''<br>a 106<sup>th</sup>
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''katle'o''' || 7000 || seven thousand || '''kikatle'o'''<br>seven thousandth || '''tikatle'o'''<br>7000 times || '''ikatle'o'''<br>1/7000
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| = function words =
| |
|
| |
| == particles ==
| |
|
| |
| == conjunctions ==
| |
| There are three coordinating conjunctions in Kala and three correlative conjunctions:
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| === coordinating ===
| |
| * '''ma''' - and; also
| |
| :: '''mita ina ma moku''' - <small>dog eat and sleep</small> - ''The dog eats and sleeps.''
| |
| * '''ua''' - or
| |
| :: '''mita ina ua moku''' - <small>dog eat or sleep</small> - ''The dog eats or sleeps.''
| |
| * '''ehe''' ('''me''') - but; yet
| |
| :: '''mita ina ma mokunke''' - <small>dog eat but sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog eats but does not sleep.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| === correlative ===
| |
| * '''yema''' - both X and Y
| |
| :: '''mita ina yema empa''' - <small>dog eat both.X.and.Y run</small> - ''The dog eats and runs.''
| |
| * '''ue''' - either X or Y
| |
| :: '''mita ina ue empa''' - <small>dog eat either.X.or.Y run</small> - ''The dog is either eating or running.''
| |
| * '''uenke''' ('''uek''') - neither X nor Y
| |
| :: '''mita ina uenke empa''' - <small>dog eat neither.X.nor.Y run</small> - ''The dog is neither eating nor running.''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
|
| |
| == interjections ==
| |
|
| |
| = questions =
| |
|
| |
| There are two types of questions: [[Wikipedia:Yes–no_question|Polar]], those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers. Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.
| |
|
| |
| * '''mita ina''' - <small>dog eat</small> - ''The dog eats.''
| |
| ** '''mita ina ka''' - <small>dog eat Q</small> - ''Does the dog eat?''
| |
|
| |
|
| The other type contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':
| |
|
| |
|
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| |
| |+ kanyo
| |
| |-
| |
| !
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! gloss
| |
| ! English
| |
| |-
| |
| ! object
| |
| | '''ke mita ina ka''' || <small>O dog eat Q</small> || ''What does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! person
| |
| | '''ko ina ka''' || <small>person eat Q</small> || ''Who eats?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! possession
| |
| | '''koyo mita ina ka''' || <small>person-POSS dog eat Q</small> || ''Whose dog eats?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! manner
| |
| | '''to mita ina ka''' || <small>manner dog eat Q</small> || ''How does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! place
| |
| | '''mo mita ina ka''' || <small>place dog eat Q</small> || ''Where does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! reason
| |
| | '''nye mita ina ka''' || <small>reason dog eat Q</small> || ''Why does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! time
| |
| | '''ama mita ina ka''' || <small>time dog eat Q</small> || ''When does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! amount
| |
| | '''uku mita ina ka''' || <small>amount dog eat Q</small> || ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! which
| |
| | '''ula mita ina ka''' || <small>any dog eat Q</small> || ''Which dog eats?''
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
|
| = syntax =
| |
|
| |
|
| [[Category:Conlangs]] | | [[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Conscripts]][[Category:Kala]] |
