Kala/affixes

See also: Kala lexicon & Affixes by use

These are the functional affixes used in Kala.

pa ta ka ma na nya sa ha tsa tla ua la ya a

pa

• -pa marks the Abilitative (ABIL)

from pala

na mokuyepak - 1s sleep-PST-ABIL-NEG - I was unable to sleep.

nam mue pana ke mauam anyapak - 1pl without rain O flower-PL see-ABIL-NEG - We cannot see the flowers without rain.

• -pe marks "piece; part of ~" (part)

from peya

mita ke inape yatsi - dog O food-part chew - The dog is chewing the morsel.

• -pu marks "clothing of/for ~" (wear)

from puku

naya tayo ke anapu nomo ka - wife 2sg.GEN O head-wear like Q - Does your wife like hats?

• -pua marks the Perfective (PFV)

from opua

kam inapua - 3pl eat-PFV - They have eaten.

• -pya marks the Attemptative (ATT)

from upya

neko ke panya matapya - cat O mouse kill-ATT - The cat is trying to kill the mouse.

ima ha inapyak - now 3s eat-ATT-NEG - She hasn't tried to eat yet.

• -pye marks the Excessive (EXC)

from kupye

itanu tahapye - PROX-plate big-EXC - This plate is too big.

• -pyo marks "disease (of ~); ill; sick" (ill)

from pyoki

ha ke tsinipyo yoha - 3sg O sugar-ill have - He has diabetes.

• -pao marks "crooked; warped; unbalanced" (warp)

from payo

ke mita hayo anyapao yoha - O dog 3sg.GEN eye-warp have - Her dog has a crooked eye (Strabismus).

mpa

• -mpa marks "many/much~" (many)

from mpa (originally from -m "plural" + -ha "augmentative")

yemitampa - DIST-dog-many - Those many dogs (over there).

• -mpe marks the Limitative (LIM)

from mpe

tlanampe kala - people-LIM speak - Only people speak.

• -mpo marks "bad; unfavorable; unpleasant" (bad)

from mala

ke naku nayo kehampo - O sister 1s.GEN body-bad - My sister is infirmed.

• -mpu marks "~ formed/shaped" (shape)

from umpu

na'am ke panu tsakampu inaye - 1pl.EXCL O cake house-shape eat-PST - We ate a house-shaped cake.

ta

• -ta marks the Masculine (MASC)

from tlaka

mo ke umata hayo ka - place O horse-MASC 3s.GEN Q - Where's her stallion?

• -te marks the Precative (PREC)

from teya

ke asi yetate - O salt give-PREC - Will you please pass me the salt?

simate - sit-PREC - Please, sit.

• ti- marks a Multiple (MUL)

from tiha

tiueta'o - MUL-ten-two - duodecuple

• -to marks "manner/method of ~" (way)

from to

yamato - mountain-way - mountaineering

muhito - environment-way - environmentalism

• -tai "so-called" (so.called)

from ata

kamahitai - village-so.called - The so-called village.

indicates that the speaker thinks what he is referencing is not actually represented by the noun

nta

• -nta marks "relative; kin" (kin)

from nata

ntaku - sibling - sibling

ntaya - kin-marriage - spouse

This suffix is also used when gender is neutral, or ambivalent.

ka

• -k marks Negation (NEG)

from nke

mita inak - dog eat-NEG - The dog doesn't eat.

ya simak - VOC sit-NEG - Don't sit.

This suffix is changes to -nke when preceding syllable contains /k/. See -nke

• -ke marks the Dubitative (DUB)

from ketsa

ha tsakahueke - 3s home-LOC-DUB - I guess he is at home. lit: He is at home, supposedly.

kam inyake - 3pl hunger-DUB - (It's doubtful that) they are hungry.

• -ki marks the Reflexive (REFL)

from ki

na ma'a enya anyaki - 1s with mirror see-REFL - I look at myself with a mirror.

This can also mark the pronoun. See -i

• ki- marks Ordinal numbers (ORD)

from tsuki

kiha'o - ORD-three - third / 3rd

• -ko marks an Agent noun (AG)

from ko

taue kamyo tiyako - cousin.male 3pl.GEN bread-AG - Their cousin is a baker.

ke yamako tipua'u - O mountain-AG fall-PFV - The mountaineer has fallen.

This suffix is changes to -tlo when preceding syllable contains /k/. See -tlo

• -kua marks "all of ~; every ~" (all)

from kua

mitakua ina ma moku - dog-all eat and sleep - All dogs eat and sleep.

• -kya marks the Hortative (HORT)

from kya

inakya - eat-HORT - Let's eat!

• -kyo marks "do ~ quickly" (quick) (This is a type of imperative.)

from kyolo

ua'ekyo - upward-quick - Get up!

kuama nam inakyo - always 1pl eat-quick - We always eat quickly.

• -kyo marks "school of ~" (-ism) (school)

from hakyo

tanakyo - fight-school - dojo; martial arts training academy; etc

kuhakyo - cook-school - culinary-school; chef’s academy

This suffix is used to specify a location where students learn. This can also be used to indicate a school of thought, or ideology.

• -kan marks "chief/leader of ~" (chief)

from kana

ta ke hakyokan unya ka - 2s O school-chief know Q - Do you know the headmaster?

nka

• -nke marks Negation (NEG)

from nke

ha akanke - 3s drive-NEG - She doesn't drive.

ya etla tsekanke - VOC P.4s pull-NEG - Don't pull it.

This suffix is only used when the preceding syllable contains /k/. See -k

• -nko marks the Progressive (PROG/CONT)

from nkoso

na ke niye pukunko - 1s O undergarment wear-CONT - I am wearing underclothes.

• -nku marks the Reciprocal (RECP)

from anku

kanku anya - 3pl.RECP see - They see each other.

This suffix is only used with plural pronouns. It corresponds to "each other."

ma

• -m marks the Plural (PL)

from ma

nam ke mitam yoha - 1pl O dog-PL have - We have dogs.

This suffix changes to "-lo" when the preceding syllable contains a /m/, /mp/, and sometimes a /p/, also, when the word begins with a vowel.

• -ma marks "time for ~" (time.for)

from ama

yomatli tsulama - tomorrow clebrate-time.for - Tomorrow is time for celebration.

• -me marks the Reversative (REV)

from kume

ha ke nauam tlipime palayek - 3sg O rope-PL tie-REV be.able-PST-NEG - He was unable to untie the ropes.

This could also be ha ke nauam tlipimepayek

• -mi marks the Paucal (PAU)

from mi (originally from -m "plural" + -hi "diminutive")

yemua mitami moku - yonder dog-PAU sleep - A few dogs are asleep over there.

• -mo marks "place/location of/for ~" (place)

from mo

na ke inamo ayek - 1sg O eat-place past-NEG - I've not been to a restaurant.

• -mu marks the Inchoative (INCH)

from mula

nahi yotimu - girl play-INCH - The girl begins to play.

• -mua marks "a lack of ~; be without ~" (lack)

from pamua

intahim inamua - PROX-child-PL food-lack - These children are without food.

• -mue marks "man-made; artificail" (ART)

from ume

mo ke motsimuelo ka - place O bag-ART-PL Q - Where are the plastic bags?

• -mya marks the Causative (CAUS)

from muya

tahi kamyo ena enomya - son 3pl.GEN P.1s anger-CAUS - Their son is annoying me.

• -mye marks "redo ~; do ~ again" (redo)

from muya + -ye

ta ke ina kuhamye ka - 2s O food cook-redo Q - Are you reheating the food?

• -myo marks the Permissive (PERM)

from myonta

ta ke hina simamyok - 2s O here sit-PERM-NEG - You are not allowed to sit here.

na

• -n marks Adverb(ial)s (ADV)

from no

tsumun nam yokone - caution-ADV 1pl swim-SUG - We should swim cautiously.

Kala lacks morphological adverbs, verbs modified with the adverbial ending -n tend to precede the verb phrase they modify.

• -na marks the Feminine (FEM)

from naka

mo ke umana hayo ka - place O horse-FEM 3s.GEN Q - Where's his mare?

• -ne marks the Propositive (PROP)

from neya

ta mokune - 2s sleep-PROP - You should sleep.

• -ni marks "fine/pleasant/nice ~" (nice)

from niha

ha inanimyaye - 3s food-nice-CAUS-PST - He made nice food.

yomani - day-nice - Good day. / Hello.

• -nu marks Hearsay (HSY)

from anu

ha inanu - 3s eat-HSY - She eats (I hear). / (It's said) She is eating.

• -nua marks the Frequentative (FREQ)

from nua

tlaka ke apua tlatonua - man O song recite-FREQ - The man recites the song repetitively.

• -nai marks "~ food" (food)

from ina

ke mitanai ka - O dog-food Q - Is there any dog food?

nya

• -nya marks Visual Sensory (VIS)

from anya

ke kana kupayenya - O chief die-PST-VIS - The chief died. and I saw it

• -nyo marks "machine/tool/device for ~" (tool)

from mayo

ke amonyo tanyapua - O carry-tool break-PFV - The handle has been broken.

na ke ilanyo anya - 1s O fly-tool see - I see the plane.

sa

• -sa marks "room for/of ~" (room)

from sala

nahi mokusahue hayo - girl sleep-room-LOC 3s.GEN - The girl is in her bedroom.

• -si marks "color of ~" (color)

from sahi

timasi ena kyopo - blood-color P.1s fright - The color of blood (dark red) frightens me.

ke senusi hayo ka - O hair-color 3s.GEN Q - What color is her hair?

• -so marks "type/kind of ~" (type)

from so

ke itla mitaso ka - O this dog-type Q - What is this breed of dog?

• -su marks "market/shop of ~" (shop)

from suku

mo tiyasu ka - place bread-shop Q - Where is the bakery?

• -sue marks the Preparative (PREP)

from yaso

na inasue - 1s eat-PREP - I'm ready to eat.

ha

• -ha marks the Augmentative (AUG)

from taha

ke tsakaha kamyo nyome - O house-AUG 3pl.GEN beige - Their mansion is beige.

This suffix is changes to -ka when preceding syllable contains /h/.

• -he marks the Necessitative (NEC)

from heya

nahi na'amyo nya mase onyohe - daughter 1pl.EXCL.GEN for dance learn-NEC - Our daughter needs to learn to dance.

ta yalahek - 2s go-NEC-NEG - You don't need to go.

• -hi marks the Diminutive (DIM)

from ahi

na mitahi anyayek - 1s dog-DIM see-PST-NEG - I did not see the puppy.

This suffix is changes to -ki when preceding syllable contains /h/.

• -ho marks the Assumptive (ASS)

from toho

naka hinaho - woman be.here-ASS - The woman must be here. (I assume) (also used as "assertive")

• -hu marks an Aggressive or Intensive (INT)

from kyohu

ha kapihu - 3s ugly-INT - He's hideous.

mita nayo inyahuye - dog 1s.GEN hunger-INT-PST - My dog was ravenous.

• -hua marks "flower/plant ~" (flower)

from maua

ha ke yanahuam nomoha - 3s O yellow-flower like-AUG - She really likes daisies.

• -hue marks the Locative (LOC)

from hue

naye na tasa ke masa okyohue anyaye - while 1s hunt O deer clearing-LOC see-PST - While hunting, I saw a deer in a clearing.

takuya nayo tsakahuek - brother-in.law 1s.GEN house-LOC-NEG - My brother-in-law isn't home.

• -hya marks "for/by animal" (ANI)

from haya

tsakahya - house-ANI - An animal pen/enclosure.

• -hye marks Recent past tense (REC) (action just finished)

from aye + -hi

ota namyo akyahye - father 1pl.GEN wake-REC - Our father just woke.

• -hyo marks "juice/liquid of ~" (juice)

from hyota

ha pomahyo nomo - 3s apple-juice like - She likes apple juice.

ha uakahyo inupak - 3s cow-juice drink-ABIL-NEG - He is lactose intolerant.

tsa

• -tsa marks "damned/cursed ~" (damn)

from tsaya

na itantitsa nomok - 1s PROX-truck-damn enjoy-NEG - I don't like this damned truck!

• -tse marks "appear; seem to ~" (seem)

from tse'e

ta sulitse - 2s tire-seem - You seem tired.

• tsi- marks "angle; bend" (angle)

from atsi

tsiha'o - angle-three - triangle

tsiya'o - angle-five - pentagon

• -tsi marks Evidential (EVID)

from kotsi

nahi nya katso ke punka tsametsi - girl for meal O fruit gather-EVID - The girl is collecting fruit for dinner.

• -tso marks "middle; half" (half)

from tsoya

ke kunyetso ayaha - O moon-half pretty-AUG - The half-moon is really pretty.

• -tsu marks "flesh; meat of ~" (meat)

from kutsu

ha ke manotsu inatli - 3s O chicken-meat eat-FUT - He's gonna eat some chicken.

• -tsua marks "almost; nearly" (almost)

from tsua (sometimes tsu'a)

na'am kupayetsua - 1pl.EXCL die-PST-almmost - We almost died.

• -tsue marks "~ slowly" (slow)

from tsipue

mita hayo inatsue - dog 3s.GEN eat-slow - Her dog eats slowly.

tla

• -tla marks "language/talk/lingo of ~" (talk)

from kala

ha ke tsayatla unyak - 3s O curse-talk know-NEG - He doesn't understand vulgarities.

• -tle marks the Relative Clause (REL)

from ele

na nahi yalatle anyatli - 1s girl go-REL see-FUT - I will see the girl who goes.

This suffix is only used when the preceding syllable contains /l/. See -le

• tli- marks the Collective (COL)

from tatli

tlimita malo tala - COL-dog brown come - A pack of brown dogs is coming.

• -tli marks the Future Tense (FUT)

from atli

naka tahi tlepatli - woman boy teach-FUT - The woman will teach the boy.

• -tlo marks an Agent noun (AG)

from ko

taku tayo tlokatlo - brother 2s.GEN lie-AG - Your brother is a liar!

This suffix is only used when the preceding syllable contains /k/. See -ko

• -tlai marks the Immediate Future (IMM)

from atli and ahi

na tlelatlai - 1s bathe-IMM - I'll bathe soon. (within the day)

ua

• -ua marks "study of; ~ study" (study)

from kuaha

ha ke kehaua onyotli - 3s O body-study learn-FUT - He will study biology.

• ua- marks the Medial (MED)

from uatla

uamita malo - MED-dog brown - That brown dog (by you).

• -ue marks the Desiderative (DES)

from ueha or ueyo

na inaue - 1s eat-DES - I want to eat. / I intend to eat.

kamena mehaueyek - 3pl-P.1s hit-DES-PST-NEG - They did not intend to hit me.

la

• -la marks the Motive (MOT)

from yala

nam tahela - 1pl below-MOT - We're descending.

kam ua'elapua - 3pl above-MOT-PFV - They've ascended.

• -la marks the Mutative (MUT)

from ela

na inyala - 1s hunger-MUT - I'm getting hungry.

• -la marks the Indefinite (INDEF)

from ula

ke kola hina ka - O AG.INDEF here Q - Is someone here?

ke mitala hinak - O dog-INDEF here-NEG - There aren't any dogs here.

• -le marks the Relative (REL)

from ele

See -tle

• -li marks "each; every" (each)

from oli

mitali inapua - dog-each eat-PFV - Each dog has eaten.

• -lo marks the Plural (PL)

from ma

See -m

ya

• -ya marks "in-law; non-blood relative" (in.law)

from tlaya

ha ke nakuya nayo - 3s O sister-in.law 1s.GEN - She is my sister-in-law.

• -ye marks the Past Tense (PST)

from aye

naka mita anyaye - woman dog see-PST - The woman saw the dog.

• ye- marks the Distal (DIST)

from yetla

yemitampa - DIST-dog-many - Those many dogs (over there).

• -yo marks the Genitive (GEN)

from yoha

kanku ke onta nayo itsa - 3pl.RECP O parent 1s.GEN love - My parents love each other.

a

• e- marks the Patient (P) (on pronouns)

from eke

kameha mataye - 3pl-P.3s kill-PST - They killed him.

eta anya - P.2s see - You are seen.

e- is also used to mark the passive voice on pronominal constructions.

• -i marks the Reflexive (REFL)

from ki

na'i tlelatli - 1s.REFL bathe-FUT - I will bathe myself.

ta'i sepanek - 2s.REFL hurt-PROP-NEG - You shouldn't hurt yourself.

This can also mark the verb. See -ki

• i- marks the Proximal (PROX)

from itla

imitami - PROX-dog-PAU - These few dogs (by me).

• o- marks "honored ~" (honor)

from o

mo otsaka ka - place honor-house Q - Where is the honored house?

Notes

1. The -u / u- is used to replace redundant syllables.