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| = Morphology =
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| == Verbs ==
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| == Nouns ==
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| == Case ==
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| Case is marked with suffixes. The regular forms of the case markers are given in the list below. Case is marked on noun phrases using null marking for agents, and '''-n''' for patients. The clitic '''-n''' can appear on multiple noun phrases in a single sentence at once, such as the direct object, indirect object, and adverbial nouns.
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
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| ! Case
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| ! Suffix
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| ! Example
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| |-align=center
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| | Nominative<br>[NOM]
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| | '''-Ø'''
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| | '''yona''' (the/a) book
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| |-align=center
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| | Accusative<br>[ACC]
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| | '''-n'''
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| | '''yonan''' (the/a) book [''dir. object/patient'']
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| |-align=center
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| | Genitive<br>[GEN]
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| | '''-yo'''
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| | '''yonayo''' of, belonging to (the/a) book
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| |-align=center
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| | Dative<br>[DAT]
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| | '''-la'''
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| | '''yonala''' for, to, at (the/a) book [''indir. object/patient'']
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| |-align=center
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| | Locative<br>[LOC]
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| | '''-hue'''
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| | '''yonahue''' in, on, at (the/a) book
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| |-align=center
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| | Ablative<br>[ABL]
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| | '''-nte / -uai'''
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| | '''yonante''' from, of (the/a) book
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| |-align=center
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| | Comitative<br>[COM]
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| | '''-mua'''
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| | '''yonamua''' with, by, via, using (the/a) book
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| |-align=center
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| | Abessive<br>[ABE]
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| | '''-mue'''
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| | '''yonamue''' without (the/a) book
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| |-align=center
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| | Terminative<br>[TERM]
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| | '''-mpe'''
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| | '''yonampe''' up to, just, only (the/a) book
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| |}
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| The nominative [NOM] is not marked [-Ø] and is in the absolutive form. It indicates a syntactic core participant of the action, agent, force, or experiencer. The accusative is marked with the clitic '''-n''' (from '''no''' - ''thing; object'') and indicates a patient, theme or goal (used as '''''Oblique''''' [OBL] occasionally), instrument, or experiencer. The genitive '''-yo''' (from '''yoha''' - ''have; possess'') indicates inalienable association or possession, whereas the particle '''te''' (''of; from'')indicates alienable association or possession and is roughly equivalent to the ablative case. The dative/(al)lative '''-la''' (from '''yala''' - ''go; walk'') indicates the recipient/beneficiary of an action, or movement towards object. The locative '''-hue''' indicates location or circumstance, and can be used to indicate the durative for stative verb constructions. The ablative '''-nte''' (from '''te''' - ''of; from'') / '''-uai''' (from '''uaye''' - ''from out of/away'') indicates origin, source, or movement away from a location. The comitative/instrumental/inclusive/coordinative '''-mua''' (from '''mua''' - ''with; (be) together'') indicates instrument, or in company of something. The abessive '''-mue''' indicates the lack or absence of something, it is roughly analogous to the English suffix ''-less''. The terminative/limitative '''-mpe''' (from '''amye''' - ''be alone; final'') indicates the extent, finality, or limit of a thing.
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| === Postpositional Verbs ===
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| In addition to the case system, there are several pospositional stative verbs. These are used interchangeably as pospositions and/or serial verbs.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| ==== Locational ====
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| * '''pahe''' - against; touching
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| * '''pue''' - after; back; behind; rear; beyond
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| * '''tahe''' - below; beneath; under
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| * '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at
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| * '''mahe''' - between; among [intrative INTR]
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| * '''ma'e''' - before; in front (of)
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| * '''nahe''' - inside; interior; during; within
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| * '''nyaue''' - outside of; exterior to
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| * '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
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| * '''tsa'e''' - across; through
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| * '''tla'e''' - around; encircling; surrounding; approximately
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| * '''uaye''' - from [out/away]
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| * '''ua'e''' - above; over; on
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| * '''ya'e''' - near; close to
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| {{col-break}}
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| ==== Relational ====
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| * '''pa'e''' - apart from; other than; except for
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| * '''nka'e''' - in spite of; regardless of
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| * '''tsahe''' - for [in exchange for]
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| * '''tsaue''' - so long as; provided that
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| * '''tlaye''' - according to; based on
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| * '''te''' - of [belonging to; = GEN]; about
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| * '''uahe''' - instead of; rather than
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| * '''kue''' - like; similar to
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| * '''nya / nya'e''' - for [BEN]; purpose of; in order
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| * '''nyahe''' - by means of; per; via
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| * '''yahe''' - of [containing specified quantity]
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| {{col-break}}
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| ==== Temporal ====
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| * '''maye''' - before
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| * '''kaye''' - until; up to; as far as
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| * '''naye''' - during; while
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| * '''maue''' - as soon as; when
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| * '''tsaye''' - during; start to end
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| * '''paye''' - after
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| * '''taye''' - since; from the end
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| {{col-end}}
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| * '''mita ina naye uakatsu te keya ue'o yahe hayo yempa taheye'''
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| : <small>dog eat while bovine.flesh of gram ten amount.of 3sg.GEN table be.under-PST</small>
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| : ''The dog was under the table while eating his 10 grams of beef.''
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| == Gender ==
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| Gender is not normally marked but can be with the endings <b>-na</b> and <b>-ta</b> to mark the feminine and masculine, respectively or nouns such as '''naka''', '''tlaka''', '''nahi''', or '''tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. A gender neutral suffix, '''-nta''' may be used when the gender is unknown or ambiguous.
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| * <b>kuma</b> - <small>bear</small> - <i>a bear</i> → <b>kumana</b> - <small>bear-FEM</small> - <i>sow</i> → <b>kumata</b> - <small>bear-MASC</small> - <i>boar</i>
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| * <b>masa</b> - <small>deer</small> - <i>a deer</i> → <b>masana</b> - <small>deer-FEM</small> - <i>doe</i> → <b>masata</b> - <small>deer-MASC</small> - <i>stag</i>
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| * <b>uma</b> - <small>horse</small> - <i>a horse</i> → <b>umana</b> - <small>horse-FEM</small> - <i>mare</i> → <b>umata</b> - <small>horse-MASC</small> - <i>stallion</i>
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| == Pronouns and Determiners ==
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| '''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. The pronoun '''na'am''' is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| Personal pronouns:
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| * '''na''' - 1st person
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| * '''ta''' - 2nd person
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| * '''ha''' - 3rd person
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| * '''tla''' - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for [[wp:Animacy|inanimate]] nouns)
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| {{col-break}}
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| Modifiers:
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| * '''-m''' - plural
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| * '''-nku''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_pronoun|reciprocal]] (only attaches to plural pronouns)
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| * '''e-''' - patient
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| * '''-i''' - reflexive
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| * '''-yo''' - possessive
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| {{col-break}}
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| Other pronouns include:
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| * '''tlokua''' - everyone, everybody
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| * '''kola''' - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
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| * '''tlok''' - no one, nobody
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| * '''nokua''' - everything
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| * '''nola''' - something; whatever, anything
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| * '''nok''' - nothing
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| {{col-end}}
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
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| |+ nkalo
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| |-
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| !
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| ! Agent
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| ! Patient
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| ! Reflexive
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| ! Possessive
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| ! Reciprocal
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| |-
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| ! 1sg
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| | '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''na'i''' || '''nayo''' || '''-'''
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| |-
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| ! 2sg
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| | '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''ta'i''' || '''tayo''' || '''-'''
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| |-
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| ! 3sg
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| | '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''ha'i''' || '''hayo''' || '''-'''
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| |-
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| ! 4sg
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| | '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tla'i''' || '''tlayo''' || '''-'''
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| |-
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| ! 1pl<br>1pl exclusive
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| | '''nam'''<br>'''na'am''' || '''enam'''<br>'''ena'am''' || '''nami'''<br>'''na'ami''' || '''namyo'''<br>'''na'amyo''' || '''nanku'''<br>'''na'anku'''
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| |-
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| ! 2pl
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| | '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tami''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tanku'''
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| |-
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| ! 3pl
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| | '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kami''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kanku'''
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| |-
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| ! 4pl
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| | '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlanku'''
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| |}
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| === Pronominal constructions ===
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| The agent and patient pronouns are linked in most constructions. That means that the agent and the patient form one word. This is done with the pronominal patient marking affix -'''e'''-.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''neha anya'''
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| : <small>1s-P.3s see</small>
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| : ''I see her.''
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| * '''kameta motoyek'''
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| : <small>3pl-P.2s remember-PST-NEG</small>
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| : ''They didn’t remember you.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tametla yohauek'''
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| : <small>2pl-P.4s have-DES-NEG</small>
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| : ''You (all) don’t want to have it.''
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| * '''nya tena tapya ka'''
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| : <small>for 2s-P.1s follow Q</small>
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| : ''Why are you following me?''
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| {{col-end}}
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
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| ! A/P
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| ! ''1sg''
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| ! ''2sg''
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| ! ''3sg''
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| ! ''4sg''
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| ! ''1pl''
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| ! ''1pl.EXCL''
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| ! ''2pl''
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| ! ''3pl''
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| ! ''4pl''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''1sg''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''neta'''
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| | '''neha'''
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| | '''netla'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''netam'''
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| | '''nekam'''
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| | '''netlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''2sg''
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| | '''tena'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''teha'''
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| | '''tetla'''
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| | '''tenam'''
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| | '''tena'am'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''tekam'''
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| | '''tetlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''3sg''
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| | '''hena'''
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| | '''heta'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''hetla'''
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| | '''henam'''
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| | '''hena'am'''
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| | '''hetam'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''hetlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''4sg''
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| | '''tlena'''
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| | '''tleta'''
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| | '''tleha'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''tlenam'''
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| | '''tlena'am'''
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| | '''tletam'''
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| | '''tlekam'''
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| | '''-'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''1pl''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''nameta'''
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| | '''nameha'''
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| | '''nametla'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''nametam'''
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| | '''namekam'''
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| | '''nametlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''1pl.EXCL''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''na'ameta'''
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| | '''na'ameha'''
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| | '''na'ametla'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''na'ametam'''
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| | '''na'amekam'''
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| | '''na'ametlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''2pl''
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| | '''tamena'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''tameha'''
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| | '''tametla'''
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| | '''tamenam'''
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| | '''tamena'am'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''tamekam'''
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| | '''tametlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''3pl''
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| | '''kamena'''
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| | '''kameta'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''kametla'''
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| | '''kamenam'''
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| | '''kamena'am'''
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| | '''kametam'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''kametlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''4pl''
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| | '''tlamena'''
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| | '''tlameta'''
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| | '''tlameha'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''tlamenam'''
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| | '''tlamena'am'''
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| | '''tlametam'''
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| | '''tlamekam'''
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| | '''-'''
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| |}
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| === Reflexives and Reciprocals === | | === Reflexives and Reciprocals === |
