User:Masako/pataka: Difference between revisions

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= Phonology =
== Consonants ==
* Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
{|class=wikitable style="text-align: center; width:40%;"
|+Consonants
!
!Labial
!colspan=2|Alveolar
!Palatal
!Velar
!Glottal
|-
! Nasal
| m ('''m''')
|colspan=2|n ('''n''')
| ɲ ('''ny''')
|
|
|-
! Plosive
| p~b ('''p''')
|colspan=2|t~d ('''t''')
|
| k~g ('''k''')
| ʔ (''' ' ''')
|-
! Affricate
|
| ts~t͡ʃ ('''ts''') || t͡ɬ~tl ('''tl''')
|
|
|
|-
! Continuant
|
| s~ʃ ('''s''') || l~ɾ ('''l''')
|
|
| h~ɦ ('''h''')
|-
! Semivowel
|
|colspan=2|
| j ('''y''')
| w ('''u''')
|
|}
The [[wp:Glottal_stop|glottal stop]] is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.
* '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
* '''Labialized''':/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
* '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/
=== Free variation ===
Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of [[wp:Free_variation|allophonic variation]]. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short, but are most often only lengthened when stressed.
=== Sound Changes ===
The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/.  The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, '''sama''' (''sun; star; solar'') is /ˈʃaːma/ where '''sitsa''' (''heat; hot'') is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and '''tsisi''' (''embroider; embroidery'') is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.
== Vowels ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Vowels
!
!'''Front'''
!'''Back'''
|-align=center
!'''Close'''
|{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~ʊ}} '''(u)'''
|-align=center
!'''Mid'''
|{{IPA|e~ɛ}} '''(e)''' || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)'''
|-align=center
!'''Open'''
|colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~ɑ}} '''(a)'''
|}
'''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
=== Diphthongs ===
Phonetically, '''Kala''' has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] '''ai''' and [aʊ̯] '''ao''', but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa] '''ua''', [we] '''ue''', [ja] '''ya''', [je] '''ye''', and [jo] '''yo'''. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] '''uai''' and [jaʊ̯] '''yao''' are very rare but should be noted as possible.
== Phonotactics ==
The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) '''(N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i)''' where '''(N)''' indicates nasalization, and '''u''' and '''y''' indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.
There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as '''tata''' for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).
When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by '''–u''', which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be '''tsuala’u''' meaning ''“to become prosperous”'', from '''tsuala''' ''“prosper; be prosperous”'' and the suffix '''–la''' meaning ''“become; change into”'', used to indicate the mutative.
=== Syllables ===
Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings '''–m''' (indicating general plural, deriving from '''ma''', meaning ''“and, also”''), '''-n''' (indicating accusative case, deriving from '''no''', meaning ''“thing, object”''), and '''–k''' (indicating negative mood, deriving from '''nke''', meaning ''“no, not”'').
=== Syllable Chart ===
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;"
|+the 136 basic Kala syllables
|-
!
! a
! e
! i
! o
! u
! ua
! ue
! ya
! ye
! yo
! ai
! ao
! uai
! yao
|-
! p
| align="center"|''(m)pa''
| align="center"|''(m)pe''
| align="center"|''(m)pi''
| align="center"|''(m)po''
| align="center"|''(m)pu''
| align="center"|''pua''
| align="center"|''pue''
| align="center"|''pya''
| align="center"|''pye''
| align="center"|''pyo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''pai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''pao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''puai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''pyao''</font>
|-
! t
| align="center"|''(n)ta''
| align="center"|''(n)te''
| align="center"|''(n)ti''
| align="center"|''(n)to''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tao''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
! k
| align="center"|''(n)ka''
| align="center"|''(n)ke''
| align="center"|''(n)ki''
| align="center"|''(n)ko''
| align="center"|''(n)ku''
| align="center"|''kua''
| align="center"|''kue''
| align="center"|''kya''
| align="center"|''kye''
| align="center"|''kyo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''kai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''kao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''kuai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''kyao''</font>
|-
! m
| align="center"|''ma''
| align="center"|''me''
| align="center"|''mi''
| align="center"|''mo''
| align="center"|''mu''
| align="center"|''mua''
| align="center"|''mue''
| align="center"|''mya''
| align="center"|''mye''
| align="center"|''myo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''mai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''mao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''muai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''myao''</font>
|-
! n
| align="center"|''na''
| align="center"|''ne''
| align="center"|''ni''
| align="center"|''no''
| align="center"|''nu''
| align="center"|''nua''
| align="center"|''nue''
| align="center"|''nya''
| align="center"|''nye''
| align="center"|''nyo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''nai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''nao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''nuai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''nyao''</font>
|-
! s
| align="center"|''sa''
| align="center"|''se''
| align="center"|''si''
| align="center"|''so''
| align="center"|''su''
| align="center"|''sua''
| align="center"|''sue''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''sai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''sao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''suai''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
! h
| align="center"|''ha''
| align="center"|''he''
| align="center"|''hi''
| align="center"|''ho''
| align="center"|''hu''
| align="center"|''hua''
| align="center"|''hue''
| align="center"|''hya''
| align="center"|''hye''
| align="center"|''hyo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''hai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''hao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''huai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''hyao''</font>
|-
! ts
| align="center"|''tsa''
| align="center"|''tse''
| align="center"|''tsi''
| align="center"|''tso''
| align="center"|''tsu''
| align="center"|''tsua''
| align="center"|''tsue''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsuai''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
! tl
| align="center"|''tla''
| align="center"|''tle''
| align="center"|''tli''
| align="center"|''tlo''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlao''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
! l
| align="center"|''la''
| align="center"|''le''
| align="center"|''li''
| align="center"|''lo''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''lai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''lao''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
! -
| align="center"|''a''
| align="center"|''e''
| align="center"|''i''
| align="center"|''o''
| align="center"|''u''
| align="center"|''ua''
| align="center"|''ue''
| align="center"|''ya''
| align="center"|''ye''
| align="center"|''yo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''ai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''ao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''uai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''yao''</font>
|}
<small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The '''A-O''' columns are called '''''mpalo''''' and are the most common, the '''U-YO''' are called '''''puhyo''''', the '''AI-YAO'''/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as '''''paihyao'''''.</small>
=== Collating Order ===
The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the [[Kala/writing#Naua|'''Naua''']] script.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! Consonants
| '''p'''
| '''t'''
| '''k'''
| '''m'''
| '''n'''
| '''s'''
| '''h'''
| '''ts'''
| '''tl'''
| '''l'''
|-align=center
! Vowels
| '''a'''
| '''e'''
| '''i'''
| '''o'''
| '''u'''
| '''ua'''
| '''ue'''
| '''ya'''
| '''ye'''
| '''yo'''
|-align=center
|}
Based on this order, '''ma''' would come before '''ha''', etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. '''mpa''' comes after '''pyo''' but before '''ta'''. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]]. This order can be vocalized as ''“pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”'', this aides in memorization and organization.
== Stress ==
[[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;
* '''<u>ma</u>sa''' - /ˈmaːsa/ → '''ma<u>sa</u>ko''' - /maːˈsako/
* '''tli<u>ya</u>ma''' - /tɬiːˈjama/ → '''tliya<u>ma</u>lo''' - /tɬiːjaˈmalo/
* '''kam''' - /kaːm/ → '''<u>ka</u>myo''' - /ˈkaːmʲo/
* '''empa<u>ha</u>pak''' - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → '''empaha<u>pa</u>yek''' - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/
= Morphology =
= Morphology =



Revision as of 19:06, 7 December 2020

Morphology

Verbs

Nouns

Number

In general the plural suffix is not used when the plurality of the noun is clear from context. For example, while the English sentence "there are three dogs" would use the plural "dogs" instead of the singular "dog", the Kala sentence mita ha'o a "dog three exist" keeps the word mita "dog" in its unmarked form, as the numeral makes the plural marker redundant. The collective plural is marked by tli-, derived from tatli, meaning "group; collection; gathering". It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the collective plural (COL). There are also markers for paucal (a few of something), distributive (each of a countable group), or inclusive, and an indefinite large number (many, much).

Kala gloss English
Singular [SG] mita dog a/the dog
Plural [PL] mita-m dog-PL (the) dogs
Paucal [PAU] mita-mi dog-PAU (a) few dogs
Collective [COL] tli-mita COL-dog (a) dog pack
Distributive [DIS] mita-li [or -kua] dog-DIS/INCL each/every dog
Indefinite Mass [IM] mita-mpa dog-IM many dogs

These endings can sometimes be combined to add nuance to the meaning, such as; tlimitam - COL-dog-PL - dog packs / packs of dogs; imitalin malo - PROX-dog-DIS-ACC be.browneach of these dogs is brown

When the final syllable of a word contains a labial consonant, ‘m’, ‘mp’, and ‘p’ the plural marking changes to -lo. The –lo ending is also used when the word begins with a vowel, and when the –m ending conflicts phonotactically with a given case suffix. An example of this would be; yama - mountain - a mountainyamalo - mountain-PLmountainstliyama - COL-mountain - a mountain range / range of mountainstliyamalo - COL-mountain-PL - mountain ranges / ranges of mountains.

Reduplication

Nominal reduplication in Kala indicates a plurality and that the items are scattered about in a disorderly manner. It can also indicate uncountable version of a countable noun. Occasionally, it reflects a juvenile or informal register; in this respect, it can be compared to the English diminutive ending "-y" or "-ie" (kitty, “doggie", etc.) Verb reduplication is also common in Kala as it marks adverbs. Often, this adverb is an informal and/or temporary character of the action. It may also indicate a nominal form of the verb.

  • kya o’unkonke - IMP be.loud-NEG - Don’t speak loudly!

The morphological process of reduplication is irregular in Kala and is based primarily on the initial syllable of the word. The nasals (N), plosives (P), affricates (A), continuants (C), and semivowels and vowels (S) each undergo various changes during reduplication.

  • N → N/(y/u)
  • muku - knifemumukuknives scattered around
  • muela - raspberrymemuelaraspberries scattered around / a bunch of raspberries
  • nyahi - snownanyahisnow all around
  • P → nP/(y/u) or nP → P/(y/u)
  • pana - rainpampanarain all around (“It’s raining all over.”)
  • ntasiexcitementntatasichaotic fits
  • kanodear; darlingkankano“sweetie; lovey”
  • kyo’abe quietkonko’aquietly
  • A → C/(y/u)
  • tlosoannoy; bothertlolosobothersome
  • tsimahourtsisimahourly; regularly
  • tsuamasandwichtsasuamasandwiches scattered about / a sandwich tray
  • C → ~/(y/u) [mostly sts and hk]
  • sama - sunsatsamasunny; sunshine all around
  • suku - shopsutsukumarketplace; bazaar
  • hamaprotect; defendhakamaprotective
  • S → ‘u or ~
  • imanow; yeti’umaimmediately [sounds like /ˈjuːma/]
  • ampimucus; snot; snivela'umpia runny nose; snively

Case

Case is marked with suffixes. The regular forms of the case markers are given in the list below. Case is marked on noun phrases using null marking for agents, and -n for patients. The clitic -n can appear on multiple noun phrases in a single sentence at once, such as the direct object, indirect object, and adverbial nouns.

Case Suffix Example
Nominative
[NOM]
yona (the/a) book
Accusative
[ACC]
-n yonan (the/a) book [dir. object/patient]
Genitive
[GEN]
-yo yonayo of, belonging to (the/a) book
Dative
[DAT]
-la yonala for, to, at (the/a) book [indir. object/patient]
Locative
[LOC]
-hue yonahue in, on, at (the/a) book
Ablative
[ABL]
-nte / -uai yonante from, of (the/a) book
Comitative
[COM]
-mua yonamua with, by, via, using (the/a) book
Abessive
[ABE]
-mue yonamue without (the/a) book
Terminative
[TERM]
-mpe yonampe up to, just, only (the/a) book

The nominative [NOM] is not marked [-Ø] and is in the absolutive form. It indicates a syntactic core participant of the action, agent, force, or experiencer. The accusative is marked with the clitic -n (from no - thing; object) and indicates a patient, theme or goal (used as Oblique [OBL] occasionally), instrument, or experiencer. The genitive -yo (from yoha - have; possess) indicates inalienable association or possession, whereas the particle te (of; from)indicates alienable association or possession and is roughly equivalent to the ablative case. The dative/(al)lative -la (from yala - go; walk) indicates the recipient/beneficiary of an action, or movement towards object. The locative -hue indicates location or circumstance, and can be used to indicate the durative for stative verb constructions. The ablative -nte (from te - of; from) / -uai (from uaye - from out of/away) indicates origin, source, or movement away from a location. The comitative/instrumental/inclusive/coordinative -mua (from mua - with; (be) together) indicates instrument, or in company of something. The abessive -mue indicates the lack or absence of something, it is roughly analogous to the English suffix -less. The terminative/limitative -mpe (from amye - be alone; final) indicates the extent, finality, or limit of a thing.

Postpositional Verbs

In addition to the case system, there are several pospositional stative verbs. These are used interchangeably as pospositions and/or serial verbs.

Locational

  • pahe - against; touching
  • pue - after; back; behind; rear; beyond
  • tahe - below; beneath; under
  • ka'e - to; towards; at
  • mahe - between; among [intrative INTR]
  • ma'e - before; in front (of)
  • nahe - inside; interior; during; within
  • nyaue - outside of; exterior to
  • sahe - across; opposite; other side
  • tsa'e - across; through
  • tla'e - around; encircling; surrounding; approximately
  • uaye - from [out/away]
  • ua'e - above; over; on
  • ya'e - near; close to

Relational

  • pa'e - apart from; other than; except for
  • nka'e - in spite of; regardless of
  • tsahe - for [in exchange for]
  • tsaue - so long as; provided that
  • tlaye - according to; based on
  • te - of [belonging to; = GEN]; about
  • uahe - instead of; rather than
  • kue - like; similar to
  • nya / nya'e - for [BEN]; purpose of; in order
  • nyahe - by means of; per; via
  • yahe - of [containing specified quantity]

Temporal

  • maye - before
  • kaye - until; up to; as far as
  • naye - during; while
  • maue - as soon as; when
  • tsaye - during; start to end
  • paye - after
  • taye - since; from the end


  • mita ina naye uakatsu te keya ue'o yahe hayo yempa taheye
dog eat while bovine.flesh of gram ten amount.of 3sg.GEN table be.under-PST
The dog was under the table while eating his 10 grams of beef.

Gender

Gender is not normally marked but can be with the endings -na and -ta to mark the feminine and masculine, respectively or nouns such as naka, tlaka, nahi, or tahi (the woman, the man, the girl, the boy), etc. A gender neutral suffix, -nta may be used when the gender is unknown or ambiguous.

  • kuma - bear - a bearkumana - bear-FEM - sowkumata - bear-MASC - boar
  • masa - deer - a deermasana - deer-FEM - doemasata - deer-MASC - stag
  • uma - horse - a horseumana - horse-FEM - mareumata - horse-MASC - stallion

Pronouns and Determiners

Kala agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. The pronoun na'am is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi (the woman, the man, the girl, the boy), etc.

Personal pronouns:

  • na - 1st person
  • ta - 2nd person
  • ha - 3rd person
  • tla - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for inanimate nouns)

Modifiers:

  • -m - plural
  • -nku - reciprocal (only attaches to plural pronouns)
  • e- - patient
  • -i - reflexive
  • -yo - possessive

Other pronouns include:

  • tlokua - everyone, everybody
  • kola - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
  • tlok - no one, nobody
  • nokua - everything
  • nola - something; whatever, anything
  • nok - nothing
nkalo
Agent Patient Reflexive Possessive Reciprocal
1sg na ena na'i nayo -
2sg ta eta ta'i tayo -
3sg ha eha ha'i hayo -
4sg tla etla tla'i tlayo -
1pl
1pl exclusive
nam
na'am
enam
ena'am
nami
na'ami
namyo
na'amyo
nanku
na'anku
2pl tam etam tami tamyo tanku
3pl kam ekam kami kamyo kanku
4pl tlam etlam tlami tlamyo tlanku

Pronominal constructions

The agent and patient pronouns are linked in most constructions. That means that the agent and the patient form one word. This is done with the pronominal patient marking affix -e-.

  • neha anya
1s-P.3s see
I see her.
  • kameta motoyek
3pl-P.2s remember-PST-NEG
They didn’t remember you.
  • tametla yohauek
2pl-P.4s have-DES-NEG
You (all) don’t want to have it.
  • nya tena tapya ka
for 2s-P.1s follow Q
Why are you following me?
A/P 1sg 2sg 3sg 4sg 1pl 1pl.EXCL 2pl 3pl 4pl
1sg - neta neha netla - - netam nekam netlam
2sg tena - teha tetla tenam tena'am - tekam tetlam
3sg hena heta - hetla henam hena'am hetam - hetlam
4sg tlena tleta tleha - tlenam tlena'am tletam tlekam -
1pl - nameta nameha nametla - - nametam namekam nametlam
1pl.EXCL - na'ameta na'ameha na'ametla - - na'ametam na'amekam na'ametlam
2pl tamena - tameha tametla tamenam tamena'am - tamekam tametlam
3pl kamena kameta - kametla kamenam kamena'am kametam - kametlam
4pl tlamena tlameta tlameha - tlamenam tlamena'am tlametam tlamekam -

Reflexives and Reciprocals

Kala handles reflexives and reciprocals using suffixes that can be added to either the pronoun or the verb. The reflexive suffix added to pronouns is –i, when added to verbs it is –ki, from ki meaning “self; essence”. The reciprocal suffix added to pronouns and verbs is –nku, , from anku meaning “reciprocate; [in] return”.

  • na'i sepaye
1s.REFL injure-PST
I hurt myself.
  • ha'i tlela
3s.REFL bathe
She bathes herself.
  • kanku ontan nayo itsa
3pl.RECP parent-ACC 1s.GEN love
My parents love each other.
  • na'anku amyapak
1pl.EXCL.RECP like-ABIL-NEG
We (but not you) are not able to like each other.


In order to differentiate non-singular reflexives from reciprocals, -li (“each; every”) can be added – to the subject for reflexives, and to the object for reciprocals. Note however that this construction usually implies that all members of the subject group were actually affected by the action.

  • tanakoli matakiye
fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST
Each one of the warriors killed himself.
  • kanku tanakolin matakiye
3pl.RECP fight-AG-each-ACC kill-REFL-PST
The warriors killed each other [and nobody survived].


Determiners & Demostratives

The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show deixis. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between proximal or first person (objects near to the speaker), medial or second person (objects near to the addressee), and distal or third person (objects far from both).

  • itla (i-) - this (near me)
  • uatla (ua-) - that (near you)
  • yetla (ye-) - that (over there)

Examples:

  • imitami - PROX-dog-few - These few dogs
  • yemitampa - DIST-dog-many - Those many dogs (over there)
  • uamitali - MED-dog-each - Each dog (each of those dogs) (near you)

Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.

  • kua (-kua) - all; every; whole
  • oli (-li) - each; every
  • ula (-la) - whatever; any; some
  • mi (-mi) - few; little
  • nke (-k) - none
  • mpa (-mpa) - many; much; a lot
  • maha - more; plus
  • ohi - less; fewer


Correlatives

correlatives
Proximal
i-
Medial
ua-
Distal
ye-
Inclusive
-kua
Negative
-k
Indefinite
-la
mo
(place)
hina
here
uana
there
yemua
over there
mokua
everywhere
mok
nowhere
mola
somewhere; anywhere
ko
(person)
iko
this person
uako
that person
yeko
that person
(over there)
tlokua
everyone
tlok
no one
kola
someone; anyone
uku
(amount)
iku
this much
uaku
that much
- kua
all; every
ok
none
ula
some; any
ama
(time)
ima
now, at present
uama
then; at that time
- kuama
always
amak
never
tlama
sometime; anytime
so
(kind, type)
iso
this kind
so'o
that kind
yeso
that kind
(over there)
sokua
all kinds
sok
no kind (at all)
sola
some/any kind
no
(thing)
itla
this
uatla
that
yetla
that
(over there)
nokua
everything
nok
nothing; none
nola
something; anything
to
(manner, way)
yoto
thus; like this; this way
uato
that way
ato
that way
(over there)
tokua
every way
tok
no way
tola
somehow; anyway

Syntax

  • akana.conlang.org/wiki/Delta_Naidda

Basic Word Order

The default word order in Kala is SOV, although case marking allows some flexibility.

  • mita tlakan yatsiye
dog man-ACC bite-PST
The dog bit the man.

Derivation

Gemination

Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. naka (woman) can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas nakkan (chieftess) can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.

Sample

Lexicon