Novelatine morphology
- Main article: Novelatine
Novelatine morphology includes all morphological rules which are part of the Novelatine language.
Nouns
Novelatine retains the complex system of Latin declensions, but the six cases of Latin language have merged in a three-case system: Nominative, Genitive and Accusative. Nouns are grouped in four declensions, but as phonological changes modified some endings, each declension group has more subgroups.
First declension
The first declension has both feminine and masculine nouns, but no neuter nouns. Most nouns (more than 90%) are feminine, and there is no difference in the endings between both genders. The endings are:
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | -a | -e | |
Genitive | -e | -arô | |
Accusative | -ô | -es |
- Example: Rosa, rose, feminine
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | rosa | rose | |
Genitive | rose | rosarô | |
Accusative | rosô | roses |
- Example: Êcowa, inhabitant, masculine
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | êcowa | êcowe | |
Genitive | êcowe | êcowarô | |
Accusative | êcowô | êcowes |
Even if both genders share the same endings, nouns agree with adjectives, articles, pronouns and verbs according the real gender:
- Se bone poeta: the good poet
- Sa rosa pulcra: the beautiful rose
Remember also, that some nouns (mostly modern loanwords), whose roots end with a velar stop, c [k] or g [g], should preserve this pronunciation in all declined forms, even in front of e:
- Example: Elica, screw:
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | elica | eliche | |
Genitive | eliche | elicarô | |
Accusative | elicô | eliches |
Second declension
The second declension has only masculine and neuter nouns. Each gender forms a different subgroup. There is also a -er subgroup:
Masculine subgroup
The endings for the masculine second declension are:
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | -e | -yi | |
Genitive | -yi | -erô | |
Accusative | -ô | -es |
- Example: Lupe, wolf
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | lupe | lupyi | |
Genitive | lupyi | luperô | |
Accusative | lupô | lupes |
If the root already ends with an -y- or with a -w-, the -yi endings become simply -i-:
- Example: Casye, cheese
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | casye | casyi | |
Genitive | casyi | casyerô | |
Accusative | casyô | casyes |
- Example: Ecwe, horse
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | ecwe | ecwi | |
Genitive | ecwi | ecwerô | |
Accusative | ecwô | ecwes |
Neuter subgroup
The endings for the neuter second declension are:
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | -ô | -a | |
Genitive | -yi | -erô | |
Accusative | -ô | -a |
- Example: Pomô, apple
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | pomô | poma | |
Genitive | pomyi | pomerô | |
Accusative | pomô | poma |
If the root already ends with an -y-, the -yi ending becomes simply -i-:
- Example: Brachyô, arm
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | brachyô | brachya | |
Genitive | brachyi | brachyerô | |
Accusative | brachyô | brachya |
-er subgroup
The -er subgroup contains only masculine nouns whose nominative singular form ends with -er. They add the usual second declension endings in other cases, some nouns losing the -e (the mobile -e-), while some other nouns preserve it:
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | - | -yi | |
Genitive | -yi | -erô | |
Accusative | -ô | -es |
- Example: Ager, field
With mobile -e- | |||
---|---|---|---|
Case | Singular | Plural | |
Nominative | ager | agryi | |
Genitive | agryi | agrerô | |
Accusative | agrô | agres |
- Example: Pwer, boy
Without mobile -e- | |||
---|---|---|---|
Case | Singular | Plural | |
Nominative | pwer | pweryi | |
Genitive | pweryi | pwererô | |
Accusative | pwerô | pweres |
Labial subgroup
Some nouns, whose root ends in -w-, change this last consonant in -l- before the -yi endings (singular genitive and nominative masculine plural):
- Example: Mawô, evil
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | mawô | mawa | |
Genitive | malyi | mawerô | |
Accusative | mawô | mawa |
Third declension
The third declension is the most complex and large noun declension group. There are many subgroup, as many nouns has little differences, even if the declension pattern remains the same.
The basic declension patterns for masculine/feminine and for neuter nouns are:
Masculine/Feminine | |||
---|---|---|---|
Case | Singular | Plural | |
Nominative | - | -s | |
Genitive | -s | -ô | |
Accusative | -ê | -es |
Neuter | |||
---|---|---|---|
Case | Singular | Plural | |
Nominative | - | -a | |
Genitive | -s | -ô | |
Accusative | - | -a |
If the root ends with a bilabial stop ([t] or [d]), these consonants merge with the ending -s in z ([ʦ] or [ʣ] respectively), in the genitive singular, and in the masculine and feminine nominative plural:
- Example: Ciwta, city, substantive of the nominative vowel subgroup.
Case | Singular | Plural |
---|---|---|
Nominative | ciwta | ciwtaz |
Genitive | ciwtaz | ciwtadô |
Accusative | ciwtadê | ciwtades |
If the last consonant of the noun root is -s-, or there are two or more consonants, the singular genitive ending becomes -is, while the plural nominative ending becomes -es:
- Example: Pader, father, substantive with mobile -e-.
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | pader | padres | |
Genitive | padris | padrô | |
Accusative | padrê | padres |
First subgroup
The first subgroup contains nouns whose singular nominative form coincides with their root. They simply add the regular endings.
- Example: Can, dog.
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | can | cans | |
Genitive | cans | canô | |
Accusative | canê | canes |
Second subgroup (Vowel nominative form)
The second subgroup contains nouns whose root is the plural genitive without the -ô ending. The nominative form usually ends with a vowel, as the root's last consonant was lost in this form.
- Example: Du, leader.
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | du | ducs | |
Genitive | ducs | ducô | |
Accusative | ducê | duces |
A small group of nouns lose two consonant in the nominative form, typically a consonant, preceded by w:
- Example: No, night.
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | no | nowz | |
Genitive | nowz | nowtô | |
Accusative | nowtê | nowtes |
Third subgroup (Nasal subgroup)
The second subgroup contains nouns whose root is the plural genitive without the -ô ending. The nominative form usually ends with a nasal vowel, as the root's last consonant -n merged with the previous vowel in this form. The masculine and feminine nouns usually has -ô at the nominative form, while the neuter nouns usually has -ê.
- Example: Opyinyô, opinion, thought.
Masculine/Feminine declension | |||
---|---|---|---|
Case | Singular | Plural | |
Nominative | opyinyô | opyinyons | |
Genitive | opyinyons | opyinyonô | |
Accusative | opyinyonê | opyinyones |
- Example: Nomê, noun, name.
Neuter declension | |||
---|---|---|---|
Case | Singular | Plural | |
Nominative | nomê | nomina | |
Genitive | nomins | nominô | |
Accusative | nomê | nomina |
Fourth subgroup (Palatal subgroup)
The fourth group contains nouns whose plural genitive form adds an -y- infix before the usual -ô endings. Neuter nouns in this subgroup add the -y- infix also within the plural nominative and accusative forms.
- Example: Awr, ear.
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | awr | awrs | |
Genitive | awrs | awryô | |
Accusative | awrê | awres |
- Example: Mar, sea.
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | mar | marya | |
Genitive | mars | maryô | |
Accusative | mar | marya |
Fifth subgroup (Labial subgroup)
The fifth group contains nouns whose the root's last consonant -l- becomes an -w in the singular nominative form and in the singular accusative form for neuter nouns. The plural forms add the palatal infix -y- according to the rules of the palatal subgroup.
- Example: Pew, skin.
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | pew | pels | |
Genitive | pels | pelyô | |
Accusative | pelê | peles |
- Example: Animaw, animal.
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | animaw | animalya | |
Genitive | animals | animalyô | |
Accusative | animaw | animalya |
Sixth subgroup (Rhotic subgroup)
The fifth group contains nouns whose the root's last consonant -r- becomes an -s in the singular nominative form and in the singular accusative form for neuter nouns. The plural forms add the palatal infix -y- according to the rules of the palatal subgroup.
- Example: Mus, mouse.
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | mus | murs | |
Genitive | murs | muryô | |
Accusative | murê | mures |
- Example: Os, mouth.
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | os | orya | |
Genitive | ors | oryô | |
Accusative | os | orya |
Seventh subgroup (participial subgroup)
The sixth subgroup contains nouns whose conjugation is the same as the past participles. The nominative singular final consonant -s is replaced in all other forms with a -t, which merges with the ending -s in -z, when required. The plural forms follow the palatal subgroup declension pattern.
- Example: Dês, tooth.
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | dês | dêz | |
Genitive | dêz | dêtyô | |
Accusative | dêtê | dêtes |
- Example: Pôs, bridge.
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | pôs | pôz | |
Genitive | pôz | pôtyô | |
Accusative | pôtê | pôtes |
Irregular subgroup
There are a number of nouns, which have an irregular behavior, even if they follow the usual third declension pattern:
- nom. capo; gen. capiz; acc. capo; pl. nom. capita; pl. gen. capitô pl. acc. capita (head, neuter)
- nom. fwe; gen. fwors; acc. fworê; pl. nom. fwors; pl. gen. fworô; pl. acc. fwores (flower, feminine)
- nom. die; gen. diey; acc. diê; pl. nom. dies; pl. gen. dierô; pl. acc. dies (day, masculine)
Fourth declension
The fourth declension has masculine, feminine and neuter nouns. There are two subgroups the -e subgroup and the -o subgroup.
-e subgroup
The -e subgroup contains both masculine and feminine nouns. Most nouns are masculine (more than 95 %), but the few feminine nouns are very used. These are the endings.
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | -e | -os | |
Genitive | -os | -wô | |
Accusative | -ô | -es |
- Example: Pase, step, masculine
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | pase | pasos | |
Genitive | pasos | paswô | |
Accusative | pasô | pases |
- Example: Dome, house, home, feminine
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | dome | domos | |
Genitive | domos | domwô | |
Accusative | domô | domes |
-o subgroup
The -o subgroup contains only neuter nouns. These are the endings.
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | -o | -wa | |
Genitive | -os | -wô | |
Accusative | -o | -wa |
- Example: Geno, knee
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | geno | genwa | |
Genitive | genos | genwô | |
Accusative | geno | genwa |
Loanwords
Novelatine has assimilated a number of loanwords during its develop. Some loanwords entered the language a long time ago and they were absorbed and adapted to its morphological system, while other loanwords are younger and underwent different treatments.
As Novelatine is surrounded by the Italian language, most loanwords come from this language, but in the past also French loanwords entered its vocabulary, while in most modern times the loanwords come mostly from English.
Ancient loanwords were adapted to the language, and now they do not raise particular problems:
- môgyar, to dinner, from Italian mangiare, to eat, with a slight shift in meaning, from which Novelatine speakers derived môgya, dinner, which does not exist in Italian.
Most modern loanwords, however, usually enter the language unchanged, and this could be a problem if the desinence does not fit the usual declension patterns of Novelatine.
Some loanwords are still adapted to the declensions, especially if they are very used words:
- * Example: Computer, computer, masculine.
Case | Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | computer | computers | |
Genitive | computers | computerô | |
Accusative | computerê | computeres |
Other loanwords are left unchanged in all cases, and they are labelled as indeclinable nouns, while their role, number and gender are usually expressed by articles, adjectives and verbs.
- Software, software, masculine:
- Se software sties computers nove e, the software of this computer is new
- Se programater sies software, the programmer of the software
Loanwords from Italian language are particular, especially proper nouns: Feminine nouns, already ending with -a, are declined without any problems, usually retaining the original pronunciation of the last consonant of the root.
- Monica, → gen., Moniche
Masculine nouns, which in Italian usually end with -o, are usually declined as a second declension noun, as the -o would replace the usual -e ending:
- Massimo → gen., Massimyi, acc., Massimô
They usually retain the original pronunciation of the last consonant of the root. The masculine nouns in -a decline as a first declension noun:
- Andrea → gen., Andree, acc., Andreô
Other nouns, ending with other vowels (as Daniele), or with a consonant (mostly foreign noun as Michael or Ivan) are left unchanged, even if sometimes they are declined, especially when one native speaker is named with them. They are not declined when referring to foreign people.
Articles, Adjectives and Pronouns
Articles
Novelatine has a definite article, se. The western dialect has an indefinite article, the numeral une, while the eastern dialect usually uses no indefinite article. The article une declines as a normal first class adjective.
Definite article
The definite article se has an irregular declension:
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
Nominative | se | sa | sô | syi | se | sa |
Genitive | sies | sies | sies | syor | syar | syor |
Accusative | sô | sô | sô | ses | ses | sa |
The nominative singular masculine and neuter forms usually lose their vowel before another vowel and get an apostrophe, while the nominative neuter singular and all accusative singular forms become son before another vowel:
- S'agricowa son agrô si cow: the farmer cultivates his own field
In the eastern dialect the nominative plural masculine form, syi, gets shorter too:
- W: Syi agricowe ses agres si cowôt - E: Sy'agricowe ses agres si cowôt: the farmers cultivate their own fields
In the eastern dialect, especially in most marginal area, all plural forms uses the 'sy- alternative root (pronounced [ʃ]-):
- W: Syi agricowe ses agres si cowôt - E: Sy'agricowe syes agres si cowôt: the farmers cultivate their own fields
In the northern villages of the western valley, before another vowel the accusative forms and the neuter forms in the singular become som instead of son
- W: S'agricowa som agrô si cow: the farmer cultivates his own field
The articles usually merge with the preposition ad, because of the normal merging of the sounds [d] + [s] = [ʣ]. As the preposition ad can be followed by the accusative or the genitive case, these are the merged forms:
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
ad + Genitive | azies | azies | azies | azyor | azyar | azyor |
ad + Accusative | azô | azô | azô | azes | azes | aza |
Stress and pronunciation
The definite articles are always unstressed, and must be pronounced together their noun(s):
- Sa few, [saˈfɛw], the cat
- Azô mar vade, W: [aʣõˈmar ˈvade]/E: [aʣõˈmar ˈvadə], I go to the beach
- S'amice mi cur, W: [saˈmiʧe mi ˈkur]/E: [saˈmiʧə mi ˈkur] , my friend is running
This triggers some variations in the pronunciation of the s of the singular genitive:
- [s], when is followed by a voiceless consonant and y:
- Sa lu sies sols: [saˈlu ˌsiesˈsols], The sun's light
- [z], when is followed by a voiced consonant:
- Sa porta sies domos: [saˈpɔrta ˌsiezˈdɔmos], The door of the house
- [z], when is followed by a vowel:
- Sa têperatura sies acwe: [satẽˌperaˈtura ˌsiezˈakwe], The tempeature of the water
Adjectives
Adjectives usually decline according to the gender and the number of the noun they qualify. They are usually placed after their nouns, but sometimes they are found before them.
Adjectives are divided in two class, according to their declension pattern:
1st class
The adjectives in this class decline like I and II declension nouns. They use the I declension endings for feminine nouns, and the II declension endings for masculine and neuter nouns:
- Example: Nove, new
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
Nominative | nove | nova | novô | novyi | nove | nova |
Genitive | novyi | nove | novyi | noverô | novarô | noverô |
Accusative | novô | novô | novô | noves | noves | nova |
They follow the same rules of the II declension, as there are adjectives with mobile e or with a palatal infix -y-
- Example: Veter, old, adjective with mobile e
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
Nominative | veter | vetra | vetrô | vetryi | vetre | vetra |
Genitive | vetryi | vetre | vetryi | vetrerô | vetrarô | vetrerô |
Accusative | vetrô | vetrô | vetrô | vetres | vetres | vetra |
- Example: Lyiber, free, adjective without mobile e
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
Nominative | lyiber | lyibera | lyiberô | lyiberyi | lyibere | lyibera |
Genitive | lyiberyi | lyibere | lyiberyi | lyibererô | lyiberarô | lyibererô |
Accusative | lyiberô | lyiberô | lyiberô | lyiberes | lyiberes | lyibera |
2nd class
The adjectives in this class decline like III declension nouns. They use the normal III declension endings for masculine, feminine and neuter nouns, with the same root. They can belong to anyone of all III declension subgroup, except the first one.
- Example: Brev, short, brief, adjective belonging to the palatal subgroup.
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
Nominative | brev | brev | brev | brevs | brevs | brevya |
Genitive | brevs | brevs | brevs | brevyô | brevyô | brevyô |
Accusative | brevê | brevê | brev | breves | breves | brevya |
- Example: Ceweber, famous, adjective belonging to the palatal subgroup with mobile e.
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
Nominative | ceweber | ceweber | ceweber | cewebres | cewebres | cewebrya |
Genitive | cewebris | cewebris | cewebris | cewebryô | cewebryô | cewebryô |
Accusative | cewebrê | cewebrê | ceweber | cewebres | cewebres | cewebrya |
- Example: Awda, brave, bold, audacious, adjective belonging to the vowel nominative subgroup (for this group the plural forms are the same ones of the palatal subgroup).
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
Nominative | awda | awda | awda | awdacs | awdacs | awdacya |
Genitive | awdacs | awdacs | awdacs | awdacyô | awdacyô | awdacyô |
Accusative | awdacê | awdacê | awda | awdaces | awdaces | awdacya |
- Example: Agiw, nimble, agile, adjective belonging to the labial subgroup.
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
Nominative | agiw | agiw | agiw | agils | agils | agilya |
Genitive | agils | agils | agils | agilyô | agilyô | agilyô |
Accusative | agilê | agilê | agiw | agiles | agiles | agilya |
Comparison
There are two ways for creating the various degree of comparison. One is directly retained from the ancient Latin, while the other one is a more recent creation.
The first form of comparison is built by adding some endings to the adjective's root:
- Nove, new, 1st class
Declension of the comparative form | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | |||||
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
Nominative | novyer | novyer | novye | novyers | novyers | novyera |
Genitive | novyers | novyers | novyers | novyerô | novyerô | novyerô |
Accusative | novyerê | novyerê | novye | novyeres | novyeres | novyeres |
- Nove, new 1st class
Declension of the superlative form | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | |||||
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
Nominative | novisime | novisima | novisimô | novisimyi | novisime | novisima |
Genitive | novisimyi | novisime | novisimyi | novisimerô | novisimarô | novisimerô |
Accusative | novisimô | novisimô | novisimô | novisimes | novisimes | novisima |
- Brev, short, 2st class
Declension of the comparative form | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | |||||
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
Nominative | brevyer | brevyer | brevye | brevyers | brevyers | brevyera |
Genitive | brevyers | brevyers | brevyers | brevyerô | brevyerô | brevyerô |
Accusative | brevyerê | brevyerê | brevye | brevyeres | brevyeres | brevyeres |
- Brev, short 2st class
Declension of the superlative form | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | |||||
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
Nominative | brevisime | brevisima | brevisimô | brevisimyi | brevisime | novisima |
Genitive | brevisimyi | brevisime | brevisimyi | brevisimerô | brevisimarô | brevisimerô |
Accusative | brevisimô | brevisimô | brevisimô | brevisimes | brevisimes | brevisima |
The second form of comparison is built by using the adverb mags with the normal grade of the adjective. The comparative form is formed by placing mags before the normal declined adjective, while the superlative form is formed with the definite article + mags before the declined adjective.
- bone → mags bone → se mags bone
The second forms are usually used with adjectives with more than three syllables, or with loanwords. This use is, however, not fixed yet. Especially in the Western dialect the use of mags is spreading also with shorter adjectives, while in the Eastern dialect also some longer adjectives use the first forms. In some remote villages of the Western dialect mags is replaced with pwe (from the Latin PLUS).
The comparison endings are usually added to the real root of the adjective, restoring an actually lost consonant:
- agiw → agilyer, agilisime
- awda → awdacyer, awdacisime
In the case of adjectives, whose nominative masculine singular form ends in -er with a mobile e, the superlative ending become -ime and is added directly to the -er ending without losing the -e-:
- veter → vetryer, veterime
- ceweber → cewebryer, ceweberime
Some adjectives have irregular forms for the comparative and superlative grade:
Positive | Comparative | Superlative | English |
---|---|---|---|
Bone | melyer | owtime | good |
Grôd | mayer | masime | big, great |
Mawe | peyer | pesime | bad, evil |
Parve | minyer | minime | little, small |
Demonstrative adjectives
There are two demonstrative adjectives: isvi which means that, and ste which means this; both they have an irregular conjugation:
- Isvi, that
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
Nominative | isvi | avi | ivi | yivi | evi | avi |
Genitive | iesvi | iesvi | iesvi | orôvi | arôvi | orôvi |
Accusative | ôvi | ôvi | ivi | esvi | asvi | avi |
- Ste, this
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
Nominative | ste | sta | sto | styi | ste | sta |
Genitive | sties | sties | sties | storô | starô | storô |
Accusative | stô | stô | sto | stes | stes | sta |
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
The personal pronouns in Novelatine have an irregular declension. Some of them have an alternative root in some cases. In the third persons the pronouns are divided for gender, in singular (as in English) and in plural number.
The most important feature, is the retention of the dative forms, for all personal pronouns:
Person | English | Nominative | Genitive | Dative | Accusative |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st sing. | I | eo | mey | mi | me |
2nd sing. | you (sing.) | tu | tuy | ti | te |
3rd sing. f. | he | le | lies | luy | lô |
3rd sing. m. | she | la | lies | luy | lô |
3rd sing. n. | it | lo | lies | luy | lo |
1st plur. | we | nos | nestri | nob | nos |
2nd plur. | you (plur.) | vos | vestri | vob | vos |
3rd plur. m. | they (m.) | lyi | lyor | lyis | les |
3rd plur. f. | they (f.) | le | lyar | lyis | les |
3rd plur. n. | they (n.) | la | lyor | lyis | la |
reflexive | self | - | suy | si | se |
The singular accusative masculine and feminine 3rd person form lô becomes lon before a vowel:
- Tu lon ams?: Do you love him/her?
In the northern villages of the western valley, this form becomes lom before a vowel:
- Tu lom ams?: Do you love him/her?
Accusative and dative pronominal forms usually become clitics when they are found after imperative forms, which end with a vowel:
- Dami ses cwaves sies awtomobils: Give me the keys of the car!
- Spewtalo!: Look at it! (to one person)
- Spewtad lo: Look at it! (to two or more people)
If there are two pronominal forms, a dative and an accusative form, they cliticize together, following the ordinary dative-accusative order, only if the forms end in a vowel:
- Damilo: Give it to me
- Danob lo: Give it to us
With most prepositions, which usually require the genitive case, dative forms of personal pronouns are used. The only exception is the preposition cô, which has exceptional forms for the first and the second persons:
- eo: mecô (with me)
- tu: tecô (with you sing.)
- nos: nobiscô (with us)
- vos: vobiscô (with you plur.)
The personal pronouns have also replaced the possessive adjectives and pronouns:
The possession is expressed by the dative personal pronouns, placed after the possessed noun:
- Eo son amicô ti vidye: I see your friend
The dative forms do not agree with the possessed noun, only with the gender and the number of the possessor(s).
- Eo son amicô lyis vidye: I see their friend
- Eo ses amices ti vidye: I see your friends
The genitive forms are used instead of the possessive pronouns, or when the adjectives would be used as object in the sentence.
- Ste can mey e: This dog is mine
- Styi cans mey sôt: These dogs are mine
Relative pronoun
The relative pronoun cwi has an irregular declension:
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
Nominative | cwi | cwe | cwo | cwi | cwe | cwe |
Genitive | chies | chies | chies | cwor | cwar | cwor |
Accusative | cwê | cwô | cwo | cwes | cwes | cwe |
Indefinite pronouns
- Alcwi: it may mean someone, somebody, something or anyone, anybody, anything. It declines like cwi:
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
Nominative | alcwi | alcwe | alcwo | alcwi | alcwe | alcwe |
Genitive | alchies | alchies | alchies | alcwor | alcwar | alcwor |
Accusative | alcwê | alcwô | alcwo | alcwes | alcwes | alcwe |
- Nemê: it may mean no one, nobody, only with humans or other animated beings. It has an irregular declension, only in the singular:
Case | Forms |
---|---|
Nominative | nemê |
Genitive | nemins |
Accusative | neminê |
- Niw: it means nothing, with things or action or statuses. It has an irregular declension, only in the singular:
Case | Forms |
---|---|
Nominative | niw |
Genitive | nulriy |
Accusative | niw |
- Omcwi: it may mean everyone, everybody, everything. It declines like cwi:
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
Nominative | omcwi | omcwe | omcwo | omcwi | omcwe | omcwe |
Genitive | omchies | omchies | omchies | omcwor | omcwar | omcwor |
Accusative | omcwê | omcwô | omcwo | omcwes | omcwes | omcwe |
Numbers
These are the Novelatine numbers, with their cardinal and ordinal forms:
Number | Cardinal | Ordinal |
---|---|---|
1 | une | pryime |
2 | due | secunde |
3 | W: tre / E: ter | terce |
4 | W: cwatre / E: cwater | cwarte |
5 | cwêc | cwête |
6 | W: sey / E: ses | seste |
7 | sewtê | sewtime |
8 | owto | owtave |
9 | novê | none |
10 | decê | decime |
11 | ôdecê | ôdecime |
12 | dwodecê | dwodecime |
13 | tredecê | tredecime |
14 | cwaterdecê | cwaterdecime |
15 | cwêdecê | cwêdecime |
16 | W: seydecê / E: sesdecê | W: seydecime / E: sesdecime |
17 | sewtêdecê | sewtêdecime |
18 | dwedevyinti | dwedevyigesime |
19 | ôdevyinti | ôdevyigesime |
20 | vyinti | vyigesime |
21 | vyinti une | vyigesime prime |
22 | vyinti due | vyigesime secunde |
30 | tryinta | tryintesime |
40 | cwadryinta | cwadryintesime |
50 | cwêcyinta | cwêcyintesime |
60 | sesyinta | sesyintesime |
70 | sewtyinta | sewtyintesime |
80 | owtyinta | owtyintesime |
90 | novyinta | novyintesime |
100 | cêtô | cêtesime |
200 | dwecêtyi | dwecêtesime |
300 | trecêtyi | trecêtesime |
400 | cwadregêtyi | cwadregêtesime |
500 | cwêgêtyi | cwêgêtesime |
600 | sescêtyi | sescêtesime |
700 | sewtêgêtyi | sewtêgêtesime |
800 | owtêgêtyi | owtêgêtesime |
900 | nôgêtyi | nôgêtesime |
1000 | mil | milesime |
2000 | due milya | due milesime |
1.000.000 | milyô | milyonesime |
1.000.000.000 | milyarde | milyardesime |
Declension
Most numbers are indeclinable, while only a few agree with their nouns.
- Une declines like a 1st class adjectives: une, una, unô, etc. It has no plural forms.
- Due has its own declension: m/f/n nominative: due; m/n genitive: dwor, f genitive: dwar; m/f/n accusative: dues
- The multiples of cêtô, like dwecêtyi, trecêtyi, etc., decline like 1st class plural adjectives, even if there are other indeclinable numbers after them: sescêta vyinti cwêc poma: 625 apples; le dwecêtes dues roses imyit: he bought 202 roses
- Milya is the actual plural of mil, but it is indeclinable.
- Milyô and milyarde are nouns (respectively of III and II declension). They decline according to their rule in the sentence and their nouns are in genitive cases: Due milyons ominô: two million people; unô milyonê bawteryerô côtê, it contains one million bacteria
Verbs
Novelatine has a strictly conservative and quite difficult verbal morphology. The complex verbal system of ancient Latin is retained, also with the passive synthetic forms. Nevertheless an analitic new future tense was developed, together with two conditional tenses. An isolated resultative form was also developed.
When verbs are listed, more forms are presented. As exemple, we list the verb amar, to love:
- Amar: infinitive form
- ame: first singular person of the indicative present tense
- amay: first singular person of the indicative perfect tense
- amate: past participle, masculine nominative singular form
The first singular person of the indicative present tense shows the present root, by dropping the -e, -er or -o ending:
- ame → am-e → am- (present root)
The first singular person of the indicative perfect tense shows the perfect root, by dropping the -ay, -yi or -iyi ending:
- amay → am-ay → am- (perfect root)
This is necessary, as almost all irregular verbs have a different perfect root:
- legsyi → legs-yi → legs- (perfect root) / leg- (present root)
The Novelatine verbs have six moods:
- Infinitive, which has 2 tenses: present, past
- Indicative, which has 5 tenses: present, imperfect, perfect, plusquamperfect and future
- Subjunctive, which has 5 tenses: present, imperfect, perfect, plusquamperfect and future
- Conditional, which has 2 tenses: present, past
- Resultative, which has 1 tense: past
- Imperative, which has 1 tense: present
and four adjectival forms:
- Present participle
- Past participle
- Future participle
- Gerundive
Conjugations
Novelatine verbs are divided in four conjugations:
Conjugation | Ending |
---|---|
I | -ar |
II | -er (palatal) |
III | -er (non palatal) |
IV | -yir |
The second conjugation uses the same endings of the third conjugation, plus a palatal infix -y, in many forms. For clarity's sake, we don't consider this verbal class as a subgroup of the third conjugation, but as an independent conjugation class, according to the tradition of Latin four conjugations' pattern.
Indicative
Present tense (têpe praysês)
The present tense is formed by adding some endings to the present root of the chosen verb.
These are the endings:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. |
---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | ame | monye | lege | finye |
II sing. | ams | mons | legs | fins |
III sing. | am | mon | leg | fin |
I plur. | amem | monyim | legim | finyim |
II plur. | amez | monyiz | legiz | finyiz |
III plur. | amêt | monyêt | legôt | finyôt |
In the singular second person forms, if the root ends with a bilabial stop ([t] or [d]), these consonants merge with the endings in z ([ʦ] or [ʣ] respectively):
- Spewtar, to watch, to look at → spewz [spɛwʦ], you are watching
- Eseder, to eat → esez [ezeʣ], you are eating
However if the root ends with two consonants (except for -yC-, -wC- and -rC- and -lC, with C that is not y), the endings become I: -es, II: -yis, III: -is, IV: -yis
If the verbal root ends with -Vw-, the -w- becomes -l-:
- Êcowar, to inhabit, to live in → êcols, you inhabit, you live in
The third singular person usually adds a Ø-ending or zero ending, or it can be said it adds no ending. If the verbal root ends in more than a consonant, this could trigger some changes in the verbal root:
- if the verbal root ends with -Cr, where C is a stop ([p], [b], [k], [g]), the -r- is retained:
- cewebrar: cewebre, cewebres, cewebr, cewebrem...
- if the verbal root ends with -Cw- or Cy, the -w- or -y- are dropped:
- locwer: locwe, locwis, loc, locwim...
- côsilyar: côsilye, côsilyes, côsil, côsilyem...
- punyar: punye, punyes, pun, punyem
(Note that in this example -y- is retained for the second singular person, as it is part of the root, instead of part of the ending)
In the Estern dialect, since the groups -ly-, -ny- and -sy- are read as the single consonants [ʎ], [ɲ] and [ʃ] respectively, in the third singular person l, n and s are still read as [ʎ], [ɲ] and [ʃ], even if the -y- is dropped:
- côsilyes: W [kõˈsiljes] / E [kõˈsiʎes], côsil: W [kõˈsil] / E [kõˈsiʎ]
- punyes: W [ˈpunjes] / E [puɲes], pun: W [ˈpun] / E [ˈpuɲ]
Imperfect tense (têpe êperfewtô)
The following endings have to be added to the present root:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. |
---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | amavô | monyivô | legyivô | finyivô |
II sing. | amavs | monyivs | legyivs | finyivs |
III sing. | amav | monyiv | legyiv | finyiv |
I plur. | amavem | monyivem | legyivem | finyivem |
II plur. | amavez | monyivez | legyivez | finyivez |
III plur. | amavêt | monyivêt | legyivêt | finyivêt |
In the third conjugation if the verb root ends in -Cw, the endings lose the -y-:
- Locwer, to speak → locwivô, locwivs, locwiv..
If the verbal root ends in -Vw-, the -w- becomes -l-:
- Cower, to cultivate → colyivô, colyivs, colyiv..
Perfect tense (têpe perfewtô)
The perfect tense is formed by adding some endings to the perfect root of the chosen verb. The perfect root usually coincide with the present root, as we can see in the case of most verbs of the first conjugation, but in the other conjugations, especially with irregular verbs, the root is not the same.
These are the usual endings:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. |
---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | amay | monyi | legsyi | finiyi |
II sing. | amayst | monyust | legsyist | finiyist |
III sing. | amaw | monyut | legsyit | finiyit |
I plur. | amaym | monyum | legsyim | finiyim |
II plur. | amayz | monyuz | legsyiz | finiyiz |
III plur. | amayerôt | monyerôt | legsyerôt | finiyerôt |
When a verbs belongs to a certain conjugation, it will usually add the conjugation's typical endings. However, some irregular verbs of the first, the second and the fourth conjugation, add the third declension's endings to their irregular perfect root.
- Dar, Ir → dedyi, dedyist, dedyit, dedyim, dedyiz, dedyerôt
- Ryider, IIr → ryisyi, ryisyist, ryisyit, ryisyim, ryisyiz, ryisyerôt
- Capyir, IVr → cepyi, cepyist, cepyit, cepyim, cepyiz, cepyerôt
They will be marked with Ir, IIr and IIIr in the Lexycon section.
Plusquamperfect tense (têpe pwuscwôperfewtô)
The following endings have to be added to the perfect root:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. |
---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | amayerô | monyerô | legsyerô | finiyerô |
II sing. | amayers | monyers | legsyers | finiyers |
III sing. | amayer | monyer | legsyer | finiyer |
I plur. | amayerem | monyerem | legsyerem | finiyerem |
II plur. | amayerez | monyerez | legsyerez | finiyerez |
III plur. | amayerêt | monyerêt | legsyerêt | finiyerêt |
Future tense (têpe futurô)
The synthetic future tense of ancient Latin has entirely disappeared, and it was replaced by a new analytic future form.
It is formed with the present forms of the verb aber and the infinite form of the main verb:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | ao | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
II sing. | as | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
III sing. | a | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
I plur. | avyim | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
II plur. | avyiz | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
III plur. | ôt | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
Examples:
- Eo ao caner: I will sing
- Cras azô mar ao vader: Tomorrow I will go to the beach
Subjunctive
Present tense (têpe praysês)
The following endings have to be added to the present root:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. |
---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | amê | monyô | legô | finyô |
II sing. | amis | monyes | leges | finyes |
III sing. | ami | monye | lege | finye |
I plur. | amim | monyem | legem | finyem |
II plur. | amiz | monyez | legez | finyez |
III plur. | amêt | monyôt | legêt | finyêt |
Imperfect tense (têpe êperfewtô)
The following endings have to be added to the present root:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. |
---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | amarê | monerê | legerê | finyirê |
II sing. | amars | moners | legers | finyirs |
III sing. | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
I plur. | amarem | monerem | legerem | finyirem |
II plur. | amarez | monerez | legerez | finyirez |
III plur. | amarêt | monerêt | legerêt | finyirêt |
Perfect tense (têpe perfewtô)
The following endings have to be added to the perfect root:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. |
---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | amayerê | monyerê | legsyerê | finiyerê |
II sing. | amayeris | monyeris | legsyeris | finiyeris |
III sing. | amayeri | monyeri | legsyeri | finiyeri |
I plur. | amayerim | monyerim | legsyerim | finiyerim |
II plur. | amayeriz | monyeriz | legsyeriz | finiyeriz |
III plur. | amayerêt | monyerêt | legsyerêt | finiyerêt |
Plusquamperfect tense (têpe pwuscwôperfewtô)
The following endings have to be added to the perfect root:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. |
---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | amaysê | monyisê | legsyisê | finiyisê |
II sing. | amaysis | monyisis | legsyisis | finiyisis |
III sing. | amaysi | monyisi | legsyisi | finiyisi |
I plur. | amaysim | monyisim | legsyisim | finiyisim |
II plur. | amaysiz | monyisiz | legsyisiz | finiyisiz |
III plur. | amaysêt | monyisêt | legsyisêt | finiyisêt |
Future tense (têpe futurô)
It is formed with the subjunctive present forms of the verb aber and the infinite form of the main verb:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | abyô | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
II sing. | abyes | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
III sing. | abye | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
I plur. | abyem | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
II plur. | abyez | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
III plur. | abyôt | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
Examples:
- Crede co abyes caner: I believe you will sing
- Crede co cras azô mar abyes vader: I believe that tomorrow you will go to the beach
Conditional
The conditional forms have two tenses, the present and the past tense. It is an analytic mood, formed with the auxiliary verb aver.
The conditional present is formed with the perfect tense forms of the verb aber, plus the infinitive form of the main verb:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | avyi | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
II sing. | avyust | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
III sing. | avyut | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
I plur. | avyum | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
II plur. | avyuz | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
III plur. | avyerôt | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
Examples:
- Eo avyi caner: I would sing
- Cras azô mar avyi vader: Tomorrow I would go to the beach
The conditional past is formed with the plusquamperfect tense form of the verb aber, plus the infinitive form of the main verb:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | avyerô | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
II sing. | avyers | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
III sing. | avyer | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
I plur. | avyerem | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
II plur. | avyerez | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
III plur. | avyerêt | amar | moner | leger | finyir |
Examples:
- Eo avyerô caner: I would have sung
- Azô mar avyerô vader: I would have gone to the beach
Resultative
The resultative form is not inherited from Ancient Latin, but it is a later creation, most likely under the influence of the Italian passato prossimo.
It is formed with the present forms of the verb aber and the past participle without the adjectival endings:
- advenyir, to happen → advête → advêt: cwo a advêt?, what has happened? what did just happen?
- facer, to do → fawte → fawt: cwo as fawt?, what have you done? what did you just do?
Its meaning and use are slightly different between the two dialects, but its basic meaning is pointing out the result of an action. In a more linguistically precise definition, it is a perfective past form of the verb.
Imperative
The imperative mood has only one tense, the present tense. It is used to give orders, and it has only the second person forms.
The following endings have to be added to the present root:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. |
---|---|---|---|---|
II sing. | ama | mone | lege | finyi |
II plur. | amad | monyid | legid | finyid |
Some III conjugation verbs have a short imperative form:
- dicer, to say, to tell: Di! (instead of dice!), say! tell!
- facer, to do, to make: Fa! (instead of face!): do! make!
- vader, to go: Va! (instead of vade!): go!
Impersonal forms
These forms are called impersonal, because they are not conjugated as usual verbs, but they represent special forms, usually considered as adjectival forms.
Gerundive
The gerundive is an adjectival form, which usually means which must be X-ed. It declines like a normal 1st class adjective, thus we will show only the masculine nominative singular form.
I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. |
---|---|---|---|
amôde | monêde | legêde | finyêde |
Present participle
The present participle is an adjectival form, which usually means which X-s, similar to the English -ing form. With transitive verbs it has an active meaning.
I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. |
---|---|---|---|
amôs | monês | legês | finyês |
They have a special declension (also some nouns decline this way):
- Example: Amôs, loving, which loves.
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
Nominative | amôs | amôs | amôs | amôz | amôz | amôtya |
Genitive | amôz | amôz | amôz | amôtyô | amôtyô | amôtyô |
Accusative | amôtê | amôtê | amôs | amôtes | amôtes | amôtya |
- Example: Legês, reading, which reads.
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
Nominative | legês | legês | legês | legêz | legêz | legêtya |
Genitive | legêz | legêz | legêz | legêtyô | legêtyô | legêtyô |
Accusative | legêtê | legêtê | legês | legêtes | legêtes | legêtya |
- Example: Finyês, ending, which ends.
Singular | Plural | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
Nominative | finyês | finyês | finyês | finyêz | finyêz | finyêtya |
Genitive | finyêz | finyêz | finyêz | finyêtyô | finyêtyô | finyêtyô |
Accusative | finyêtê | finyêtê | finyês | finygêtes | finyêtya | finyêtes |
Past participle
The past participle is an adjectival form, which usually means X-ed, similar to the English past participle. With transitive verbs it has a passive meaning.
It declines like a normal 1st class adjective, thus we will show only the masculine nominative singular form
I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. |
---|---|---|---|
amate | monite | lewte | finyite |
The forms of the past participle are mostly irregular in the third conjugation. Most irregular verbs have irregular participial forms:
- Caner, to sing → côte, sung
- Corer, to run → curse, run
- Fêger, to fake → fiwte, faked
- Scryiber, to write → scryiwte, written
- Venyir, to come → vête, come
Past participle are usually distinguished by the -te ending, which in some irregular verbs can become -se.
Future participle
The future participle is an adjectival form, which usually means which will X; it has no English counterparts. With transitive verbs it has an active meaning.
It is formed by dropping the masculine ending of the past participle, and adding the -ure endings:
- Venyir, to come → vête → vêt- + -ure → vêture, coming, which will come
It declines like a normal 1st class adjective, thus we will show only the masculine nominative singular form
I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. |
---|---|---|---|
amature | moniture | lewture | finyiture |
Passive forms
Novelatine has particular passive forms for its verbs, because, differently from most modern European language, but similar to Latin and Ancient Greek, in some tenses it has retained simple forms (the verb has one single form), instead of compound forms (as in English auxiliary verb + participle).
- Monyires: you are warned
- Crede co monyôter: I believe they are being warned
Simple form are used in the indicative present and imperfect tense, in subjunctive indicative present and imperfect tense, in the imperative mood and in the infinitive. The other tenses and moods are built like English, with the conjugated forms of the verb eser, to be + the past participle, or, for compound tenses, regularly with the conjugated forms of the verb aber, to have + the passive form of the infinitive.
- Monite fuyist: you were warned
- Tu as moniri: you will be warned
Infinitive
The following endings have to be added to the present root:
I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. |
---|---|---|---|
amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
Or instead it can be said, that the passive infinitive form is built by adding -i to the normal infinitive forms.
Indicative present tense
The following endings have to be added to the present root:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. |
---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | amer | monyer | leger | finyer |
II sing. | ameres | monyires | legires | finyires |
III sing. | ameter | monyiter | legiter | finyiter |
I plur. | amemer | monyimer | legimer | finyimer |
II plur. | amemnyi | monyimnyi | legimnyi | finyimny |
III plur. | amêter | monyêter | legôter | finyôter |
Indicative imperfect tense
The following endings have to be added to the present root:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. |
---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | amaver | monyiver | legyiver | finyiver |
II sing. | amaveres | monyiveres | legyiveres | finyiveres |
III sing. | amaveter | monyiveter | legyiveter | finyiveter |
I plur. | amavemer | monyivemer | legyivemer | finyivemer |
II plur. | amavemnyi | monyivemnyi | legyivemnyi | finyivemnyi |
III plur. | amavêter | monyivêter | legyivêter | finyivêter |
Indicative perfect tense
The passive indicative perfect tense is a compound tense, formed with the past participle, which usually agree in number and gender with the subject, and the perfect tense forms of the verb eser, to be:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | amate, -a, ô | monite, -a, ô | lewte, -a, ô | finyite, -a, ô | fuyi |
II sing. | amate, -a, ô | monite, -a, ô | lewte, -a, ô | finyite, -a, ô | fuyist |
III sing. | amate, -a, ô | monite, -a, ô | lewte, -a, ô | finyite, -a, ô | fuyit |
I plur. | amatyi, -e, a | monityi, -e, a | lewtyi, -e, a | finyityi, -e, a | fuyim |
II plur. | amatyi, -e, a | monityi, -e, a | lewtyi, -e, a | finyityi, -e, a | fuyiz |
III plur. | amatyi, -e, a | monityi, -e, a | lewtyi, -e, a | finyityi, -e, a | fuyerôt |
Indicative plusquamperfect tense
The passive indicative plusquamperfect tense is a compound tense, formed with the past participle, which usually agree in number and gender with the subject, and the plusquamperfect tense forms of the verb eser, to be:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | amate, -a, ô | monite, -a, ô | lewte, -a, ô | finyite, -a, ô | fuyerô |
II sing. | amate, -a, ô | monite, -a, ô | lewte, -a, ô | finyite, -a, ô | fuyers |
III sing. | amate, -a, ô | monite, -a, ô | lewte, -a, ô | finyite, -a, ô | fuyer |
I plur. | amatyi, -e, a | monityi, -e, a | lewtyi, -e, a | finyityi, -e, a | fuyerem |
II plur. | amatyi, -e, a | monityi, -e, a | lewtyi, -e, a | finyityi, -e, a | fuyerez |
III plur. | amatyi, -e, a | monityi, -e, a | lewtyi, -e, a | finyityi, -e, a | fuyerêt |
Indicative future tense
It is formed with the present forms of the verb aber and the infinite passive form of the main verb:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | ao | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
II sing. | as | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
III sing. | a | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
I plur. | avyim | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
II plur. | avyiz | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
III plur. | ôt | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
Examples:
- Syi documêtyi cras ôt videri: The documents will be seen tomorrow
Subjunctive present tense
The following endings have to be added to the present root:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. |
---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | amêr | monyôr | legôr | finyôr |
II sing. | amires | monyeres | legeres | finyeres |
III sing. | amiter | monyeter | legeter | finyeter |
I plur. | amimer | monyemer | legemer | finyemer |
II plur. | amimnyi | monyemnyi | legemnyi | finyemnyi |
III plur. | amêter | monyôter | legêter | finyêter |
Subjunctive imperfect tense
The following endings have to be added to the present root:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. |
---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | amarer | monerer | legerer | finyirer |
II sing. | amareres | monereres | legereres | finyireres |
III sing. | amareter | monereter | legereter | finyireter |
I plur. | amaremer | moneremer | legeremer | finyiremer |
II plur. | amaremnyi | moneremnyi | legerenyi | finyiremnyi |
III plur. | amarêter | monerêter | legerêter | finyirêter |
Subjunctive perfect tense
The passive subjunctive perfect tense is a compound tense, formed with the past participle, which usually agree in number and gender with the subject, and the subjunctive perfect tense forms of the verb eser, to be:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | amate, -a, ô | monite, -a, ô | lewte, -a, ô | finyite, -a, ô | fuyerê |
II sing. | amate, -a, ô | monite, -a, ô | lewte, -a, ô | finyite, -a, ô | fuyers |
III sing. | amate, -a, ô | monite, -a, ô | lewte, -a, ô | finyite, -a, ô | fuyer |
I plur. | amatyi, -e, a | monityi, -e, a | lewtyi, -e, a | finyityi, -e, a | fuyerim |
II plur. | amatyi, -e, a | monityi, -e, a | lewtyi, -e, a | finyityi, -e, a | fuyeriz |
III plur. | amatyi, -e, a | monityi, -e, a | lewtyi, -e, a | finyityi, -e, a | fuyerêt |
Subjunctive plusquamperfect tense
The passive subjunctive plusquamperfect tense is a compound tense, formed with the past participle, which usually agree in number and gender with the subject, and the subjunctive plusquamperfect tense forms of the verb eser, to be:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | amate, -a, ô | monite, -a, ô | lewte, -a, ô | finyite, -a, ô | fuyisê |
II sing. | amate, -a, ô | monite, -a, ô | lewte, -a, ô | finyite, -a, ô | fuyisis |
III sing. | amate, -a, ô | monite, -a, ô | lewte, -a, ô | finyite, -a, ô | fuyisi |
I plur. | amatyi, -e, a | monityi, -e, a | lewtyi, -e, a | finyityi, -e, a | fuyisim |
II plur. | amatyi, -e, a | monityi, -e, a | lewtyi, -e, a | finyityi, -e, a | fuyisiz |
III plur. | amatyi, -e, a | monityi, -e, a | lewtyi, -e, a | finyityi, -e, a | fuyisêt |
Subjunctive future tense
It is formed with the present subjunctive forms of the verb aber and the infinite passive form of the main verb:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | abyô | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
II sing. | abyes | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
III sing. | abye | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
I plur. | abyem | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
II plur. | abyez | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
III plur. | abyôt | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
Examples:
- Crede co syi documêtyi cras abyôt videri: I believe the documents will be seen tomorrow
Conditional present tense
It is formed with the perfect tense forms of the verb aber and the infinite passive form of the main verb:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | avyi | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
II sing. | avyust | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
III sing. | avyut | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
I plur. | avyum | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
II plur. | avyuz | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
III plur. | avyerôt | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
Examples:
- Syi documêtyi avyerôt videri: The documents would be seen
Conditional past tense
It is formed with the plusquamperfect tense forms of the verb aber and the infinite passive form of the main verb:
Person | I conj. | II conj. | III conj. | IV conj. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
I sing. | avyerô | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
II sing. | avyers | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
III sing. | avyer | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
I plur. | avyerem | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
II plur. | avyerez | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
III plur. | avyerêt | amari | moneri | legeri | finyiri |
Examples:
- Syi documêtyi avyerêt videri: The documents would have been seen
Verb eser (to be)
Indicative | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Present | Imperfect | Perfect | Pl.perfect |
I sing. | sô | erô | fuyi | fuyerô |
II sing. | es | ers | fuyist | fuyers |
III sing. | e | er | fuyit | fuyer |
I plur. | some | erem | fuyim | fuyerem |
II plur. | ez | erez | fuyiz | fuyerez |
III plur. | sôt | erôt | fuyerôt | fuyerêt |
Subjunctive | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Person | Present | Imperfect | Perfect | Pl.perfect |
I sing. | sê | eserê | fuyerê | fuyisê |
II sing. | ses | eseris | fuyers | fuyisis |
III sing. | set | eseri | fuyer | fuyisi |
I plur. | sem | eserim | fuyerim | fuyisim |
II plur. | sez | eseriz | fuyeriz | fuyisiz |
III plur. | sêt | eserêt | fuyerêt | fuyisêt |
Other compound tenses and moods are formed according to the usual grammar rules.
Other irregular verbs
I conjugation
- dar: do, das, da, dam, daz, dôt
- star: sto, stas, sta, stam, staz, stôt
II conjugation
- aber: ao, as, a, avyim, avyiz, ôt, perf.: aviy, avyust...
- poser: posô, podes, pode, W:posom/E:posome, podez, posôt, imperf.: poderô, poders...; perf.: podiy, podyust..; subj. pres.: posê, poses, pose, posem, posez, posêt; subj. imperf.: poserê, posers...
- tener: tenye, tens, tê, tenyim, tenyiz, W: tenyêt/E: têt
- voler: volye, vows, vut, volyim, volyiz, volyôt
III conjugation
- facer: facye, W: facs/E: fac, W: fac/ E: fa, facim, faciz, facyôt
- noscer: nosce, noscis, nos, noscim, nosciz, noscôt