Novelatine morphology

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Main article: Novelatine

Novelatine morphology includes all morphological rules which are part of the Novelatine language.

Nouns

Novelatine retains the complex system of Latin declensions, but the six cases of Latin language have merged in a three-case system: Nominative, Genitive and Accusative. Nouns are grouped in four declensions, but as phonological changes modified some endings, each declension group has more subgroups.

First declension

The first declension has both feminine and masculine nouns, but no neuter nouns. Most nouns (more than 90%) are feminine, and there is no difference in the endings between both genders. The endings are:

Case Singular Plural
Nominative -a -e
Genitive -e -arô
Accusative -ô -es
  • Example: Rosa, rose, feminine
Case Singular Plural
Nominative rosa rose
Genitive rose rosarô
Accusative rosô roses
  • Example: Êcowa, inhabitant, masculine
Case Singular Plural
Nominative êcowa êcowe
Genitive êcowe êcowarô
Accusative êcowô êcowes

Even if both genders share the same endings, nouns agree with adjectives, articles, pronouns and verbs according the real gender:

  • Se bone poeta: the good poet
  • Sa rosa pulcra: the beautiful rose

Remember also, that some nouns (mostly modern loanwords), whose roots end with a velar stop, c [k] or g [g], should preserve this pronunciation in all declined forms, even in front of e:

  • Example: Elica, screw:
Case Singular Plural
Nominative elica eliche
Genitive eliche elicarô
Accusative elicô eliches

Second declension

The second declension has only masculine and neuter nouns. Each gender forms a different subgroup. There is also a -er subgroup:

Masculine subgroup

The endings for the masculine second declension are:

Case Singular Plural
Nominative -e -yi
Genitive -yi -erô
Accusative -ô -es
  • Example: Lupe, wolf
Case Singular Plural
Nominative lupe lupyi
Genitive lupyi luperô
Accusative lupô lupes

If the root already ends with an -y- or with a -w-, the -yi endings become simply -i-:

  • Example: Casye, cheese
Case Singular Plural
Nominative casye casyi
Genitive casyi casyerô
Accusative casyô casyes
  • Example: Ecwe, horse
Case Singular Plural
Nominative ecwe ecwi
Genitive ecwi ecwerô
Accusative ecwô ecwes

Neuter subgroup

The endings for the neuter second declension are:

Case Singular Plural
Nominative -ô -a
Genitive -yi -erô
Accusative -ô -a
  • Example: Pomô, apple
Case Singular Plural
Nominative pomô poma
Genitive pomyi pomerô
Accusative pomô poma

If the root already ends with an -y-, the -yi ending becomes simply -i-:

  • Example: Brachyô, arm
Case Singular Plural
Nominative brachyô brachya
Genitive brachyi brachyerô
Accusative brachyô brachya

-er subgroup

The -er subgroup contains only masculine nouns whose nominative singular form ends with -er. They add the usual second declension endings in other cases, some nouns losing the -e (the mobile -e-), while some other nouns preserve it:

Case Singular Plural
Nominative - -yi
Genitive -yi -erô
Accusative -ô -es
  • Example: Ager, field
With mobile -e-
Case Singular Plural
Nominative ager agryi
Genitive agryi agrerô
Accusative agrô agres
  • Example: Pwer, boy
Without mobile -e-
Case Singular Plural
Nominative pwer pweryi
Genitive pweryi pwererô
Accusative pwerô pweres

Labial subgroup

Some nouns, whose root ends in -w-, change this last consonant in -l- before the -yi endings (singular genitive and nominative masculine plural):

  • Example: Mawô, evil
Case Singular Plural
Nominative mawô mawa
Genitive malyi mawerô
Accusative mawô mawa

Third declension

The third declension is the most complex and large noun declension group. There are many subgroup, as many nouns has little differences, even if the declension pattern remains the same.

The basic declension patterns for masculine/feminine and for neuter nouns are:

Masculine/Feminine
Case Singular Plural
Nominative - -s
Genitive -s -ô
Accusative -ê -es
Neuter
Case Singular Plural
Nominative - -a
Genitive -s -ô
Accusative - -a

If the root ends with a bilabial stop ([t] or [d]), these consonants merge with the ending -s in z ([ʦ] or [ʣ] respectively), in the genitive singular, and in the masculine and feminine nominative plural:

  • Example: Ciwta, city, substantive of the nominative vowel subgroup.
Case Singular Plural
Nominative ciwta ciwtaz
Genitive ciwtaz ciwtadô
Accusative ciwtadê ciwtades

If the last consonant of the noun root is -s-, or there are two or more consonants, the singular genitive ending becomes -is, while the plural nominative ending becomes -es:

  • Example: Pader, father, substantive with mobile -e-.
Case Singular Plural
Nominative pader padres
Genitive padris padrô
Accusative padrê padres

First subgroup

The first subgroup contains nouns whose singular nominative form coincides with their root. They simply add the regular endings.

  • Example: Can, dog.
Case Singular Plural
Nominative can cans
Genitive cans canô
Accusative canê canes

Second subgroup (Vowel nominative form)

The second subgroup contains nouns whose root is the plural genitive without the -ô ending. The nominative form usually ends with a vowel, as the root's last consonant was lost in this form.

  • Example: Du, leader.
Case Singular Plural
Nominative du ducs
Genitive ducs ducô
Accusative ducê duces

A small group of nouns lose two consonant in the nominative form, typically a consonant, preceded by w:

  • Example: No, night.
Case Singular Plural
Nominative no nowz
Genitive nowz nowtô
Accusative nowtê nowtes

Third subgroup (Nasal subgroup)

The second subgroup contains nouns whose root is the plural genitive without the -ô ending. The nominative form usually ends with a nasal vowel, as the root's last consonant -n merged with the previous vowel in this form. The masculine and feminine nouns usually has -ô at the nominative form, while the neuter nouns usually has -ê.

  • Example: Opyinyô, opinion, thought.
Masculine/Feminine declension
Case Singular Plural
Nominative opyinyô opyinyons
Genitive opyinyons opyinyonô
Accusative opyinyonê opyinyones
  • Example: Nomê, noun, name.
Neuter declension
Case Singular Plural
Nominative nomê nomina
Genitive nomins nominô
Accusative nomê nomina

Fourth subgroup (Palatal subgroup)

The fourth group contains nouns whose plural genitive form adds an -y- infix before the usual -ô endings. Neuter nouns in this subgroup add the -y- infix also within the plural nominative and accusative forms.

  • Example: Awr, ear.
Case Singular Plural
Nominative awr awrs
Genitive awrs awr
Accusative awrê awres
  • Example: Mar, sea.
Case Singular Plural
Nominative mar marya
Genitive mars mar
Accusative mar marya

Fifth subgroup (Labial subgroup)

The fifth group contains nouns whose the root's last consonant -l- becomes an -w in the singular nominative form and in the singular accusative form for neuter nouns. The plural forms add the palatal infix -y- according to the rules of the palatal subgroup.

  • Example: Pew, skin.
Case Singular Plural
Nominative pew pels
Genitive pels pel
Accusative pelê peles
  • Example: Animaw, animal.
Case Singular Plural
Nominative animaw animalya
Genitive animals animal
Accusative animaw animalya

Sixth subgroup (Rhotic subgroup)

The fifth group contains nouns whose the root's last consonant -r- becomes an -s in the singular nominative form and in the singular accusative form for neuter nouns. The plural forms add the palatal infix -y- according to the rules of the palatal subgroup.

  • Example: Mus, mouse.
Case Singular Plural
Nominative mus murs
Genitive murs mur
Accusative murê mures
  • Example: Os, mouth.
Case Singular Plural
Nominative os orya
Genitive ors or
Accusative os orya

Seventh subgroup (participial subgroup)

The sixth subgroup contains nouns whose conjugation is the same as the past participles. The nominative singular final consonant -s is replaced in all other forms with a -t, which merges with the ending -s in -z, when required. The plural forms follow the palatal subgroup declension pattern.

  • Example: Dês, tooth.
Case Singular Plural
Nominative dês z
Genitive z dêt
Accusative dêtê dêtes
  • Example: Pôs, bridge.
Case Singular Plural
Nominative pôs z
Genitive z pôt
Accusative pôtê pôtes

Irregular subgroup

There are a number of nouns, which have an irregular behavior, even if they follow the usual third declension pattern:

  • nom. capo; gen. capiz; acc. capo; pl. nom. capita; pl. gen. capitô pl. acc. capita (head, neuter)
  • nom. fwe; gen. fwors; acc. fworê; pl. nom. fwors; pl. gen. fworô; pl. acc. fwores (flower, feminine)
  • nom. die; gen. diey; acc. diê; pl. nom. dies; pl. gen. dierô; pl. acc. dies (day, masculine)

Fourth declension

The fourth declension has masculine, feminine and neuter nouns. There are two subgroups the -e subgroup and the -o subgroup.

-e subgroup

The -e subgroup contains both masculine and feminine nouns. Most nouns are masculine (more than 95 %), but the few feminine nouns are very used. These are the endings.

Case Singular Plural
Nominative -e -os
Genitive -os -
Accusative -ô -es
  • Example: Pase, step, masculine
Case Singular Plural
Nominative pase pasos
Genitive pasos pas
Accusative pasô pases
  • Example: Dome, house, home, feminine
Case Singular Plural
Nominative dome domos
Genitive domos dom
Accusative domô domes

-o subgroup

The -o subgroup contains only neuter nouns. These are the endings.

Case Singular Plural
Nominative -o -wa
Genitive -os -
Accusative -o -wa
  • Example: Geno, knee
Case Singular Plural
Nominative geno genwa
Genitive genos gen
Accusative geno genwa

Loanwords

Novelatine has assimilated a number of loanwords during its develop. Some loanwords entered the language a long time ago and they were absorbed and adapted to its morphological system, while other loanwords are younger and underwent different treatments.

As Novelatine is surrounded by the Italian language, most loanwords come from this language, but in the past also French loanwords entered its vocabulary, while in most modern times the loanwords come mostly from English.

Ancient loanwords were adapted to the language, and now they do not raise particular problems:

  • môgyar, to dinner, from Italian mangiare, to eat, with a slight shift in meaning, from which Novelatine speakers derived môgya, dinner, which does not exist in Italian.

Most modern loanwords, however, usually enter the language unchanged, and this could be a problem if the desinence does not fit the usual declension patterns of Novelatine.

Some loanwords are still adapted to the declensions, especially if they are very used words:

  • * Example: Computer, computer, masculine.
Case Singular Plural
Nominative computer computers
Genitive computers computerô
Accusative computerê computeres

Other loanwords are left unchanged in all cases, and they are labelled as indeclinable nouns, while their role, number and gender are usually expressed by articles, adjectives and verbs.

  • Software, software, masculine:
    • Se software sties computers nove e, the software of this computer is new
    • Se programater sies software, the programmer of the software

Loanwords from Italian language are particular, especially proper nouns: Feminine nouns, already ending with -a, are declined without any problems, usually retaining the original pronunciation of the last consonant of the root.

  • Monica, → gen., Moniche

Masculine nouns, which in Italian usually end with -o, are usually declined as a second declension noun, as the -o would replace the usual -e ending:

  • Massimogen., Massimyi, acc., Massimô

They usually retain the original pronunciation of the last consonant of the root. The masculine nouns in -a decline as a first declension noun:

  • Andreagen., Andree, acc., Andreô

Other nouns, ending with other vowels (as Daniele), or with a consonant (mostly foreign noun as Michael or Ivan) are left unchanged, even if sometimes they are declined, especially when one native speaker is named with them. They are not declined when referring to foreign people.

Articles, Adjectives and Pronouns

Articles

Novelatine has a definite article, se. The western dialect has an indefinite article, the numeral une, while the eastern dialect usually uses no indefinite article. The article une declines as a normal first class adjective.

Definite article

The definite article se has an irregular declension:

Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative se sa syi se sa
Genitive sies sies sies syor syar syor
Accusative ses ses sa

The nominative singular masculine and neuter forms usually lose their vowel before another vowel and get an apostrophe, while the nominative neuter singular and all accusative singular forms become son before another vowel:

  • S'agricowa son agrô si cow: the farmer cultivates his own field

In the eastern dialect the nominative plural masculine form, syi, gets shorter too:

  • W: Syi agricowe ses agres si cowôt - E: Sy'agricowe ses agres si cowôt: the farmers cultivate their own fields

In the eastern dialect, especially in most marginal area, all plural forms uses the 'sy- alternative root (pronounced [ʃ]-):

  • W: Syi agricowe ses agres si cowôt - E: Sy'agricowe syes agres si cowôt: the farmers cultivate their own fields

In the northern villages of the western valley, before another vowel the accusative forms and the neuter forms in the singular become som instead of son

  • W: S'agricowa som agrô si cow: the farmer cultivates his own field

The articles usually merge with the preposition ad, because of the normal merging of the sounds [d] + [s] = [ʣ]. As the preposition ad can be followed by the accusative or the genitive case, these are the merged forms:

Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
ad + Genitive azies azies azies azyor azyar azyor
ad + Accusative azô azô azô azes azes aza
Stress and pronunciation

The definite articles are always unstressed, and must be pronounced together their noun(s):

  • Sa few, [saˈfɛw], the cat
  • Azô mar vade, W: [aʣõˈmar ˈvade]/E: [aʣõˈmar ˈvadə], I go to the beach
  • S'amice mi cur, W: [saˈmiʧe mi ˈkur]/E: [saˈmiʧə mi ˈkur] , my friend is running

This triggers some variations in the pronunciation of the s of the singular genitive:

  • [s], when is followed by a voiceless consonant and y:
    • Sa lu sies sols: [saˈlu ˌsiesˈsols], The sun's light
  • [z], when is followed by a voiced consonant:
    • Sa porta sies domos: [saˈpɔrta ˌsiezˈdɔmos], The door of the house
  • [z], when is followed by a vowel:
    • Sa têperatura sies acwe: [satẽˌperaˈtura ˌsiezˈakwe], The tempeature of the water

Adjectives

Adjectives usually decline according to the gender and the number of the noun they qualify. They are usually placed after their nouns, but sometimes they are found before them.

Adjectives are divided in two class, according to their declension pattern:

1st class

The adjectives in this class decline like I and II declension nouns. They use the I declension endings for feminine nouns, and the II declension endings for masculine and neuter nouns:

  • Example: Nove, new
Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative nove nova novô novyi nove nova
Genitive novyi nove novyi noverô novarô noverô
Accusative novô novô novô noves noves nova

They follow the same rules of the II declension, as there are adjectives with mobile e or with a palatal infix -y-

  • Example: Veter, old, adjective with mobile e
Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative veter vetra vetrô vetryi vetre vetra
Genitive vetryi vetre vetryi vetrerô vetrarô vetrerô
Accusative vetrô vetrô vetrô vetres vetres vetra
  • Example: Lyiber, free, adjective without mobile e
Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative lyiber lyibera lyiberô lyiberyi lyibere lyibera
Genitive lyiberyi lyibere lyiberyi lyibererô lyiberarô lyibererô
Accusative lyiberô lyiberô lyiberô lyiberes lyiberes lyibera


2nd class

The adjectives in this class decline like III declension nouns. They use the normal III declension endings for masculine, feminine and neuter nouns, with the same root. They can belong to anyone of all III declension subgroup, except the first one.

  • Example: Brev, short, brief, adjective belonging to the palatal subgroup.
Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative brev brev brev brevs brevs brevya
Genitive brevs brevs brevs brev brev brev
Accusative brevê brevê brev breves breves brevya
  • Example: Ceweber, famous, adjective belonging to the palatal subgroup with mobile e.
Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative ceweber ceweber ceweber cewebres cewebres cewebrya
Genitive cewebris cewebris cewebris cewebr cewebr cewebr
Accusative cewebrê cewebrê ceweber cewebres cewebres cewebrya
  • Example: Awda, brave, bold, audacious, adjective belonging to the vowel nominative subgroup (for this group the plural forms are the same ones of the palatal subgroup).
Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative awda awda awda awdacs awdacs awdacya
Genitive awdacs awdacs awdacs awdac awdac awdac
Accusative awdacê awdacê awda awdaces awdaces awdacya
  • Example: Agiw, nimble, agile, adjective belonging to the labial subgroup.
Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative agiw agiw agiw agils agils agilya
Genitive agils agils agils agil agil agil
Accusative agilê agilê agiw agiles agiles agilya

Comparison

There are two ways for creating the various degree of comparison. One is directly retained from the ancient Latin, while the other one is a more recent creation.

The first form of comparison is built by adding some endings to the adjective's root:


  • Nove, new, 1st class
Declension of the comparative form
Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative novyer novyer novye novyers novyers novyera
Genitive novyers novyers novyers novyerô novyerô novyerô
Accusative novyerê novyerê novye novyeres novyeres novyeres
  • Nove, new 1st class
Declension of the superlative form
Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative novisime novisima novisimô novisimyi novisime novisima
Genitive novisimyi novisime novisimyi novisimerô novisimarô novisimerô
Accusative novisimô novisimô novisimô novisimes novisimes novisima
  • Brev, short, 2st class
Declension of the comparative form
Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative brevyer brevyer brevye brevyers brevyers brevyera
Genitive brevyers brevyers brevyers brevyerô brevyerô brevyerô
Accusative brevyerê brevyerê brevye brevyeres brevyeres brevyeres
  • Brev, short 2st class
Declension of the superlative form
Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative brevisime brevisima brevisimô brevisimyi brevisime novisima
Genitive brevisimyi brevisime brevisimyi brevisimerô brevisimarô brevisimerô
Accusative brevisimô brevisimô brevisimô brevisimes brevisimes brevisima


The second form of comparison is built by using the adverb mags with the normal grade of the adjective. The comparative form is formed by placing mags before the normal declined adjective, while the superlative form is formed with the definite article + mags before the declined adjective.

  • bonemags bonese mags bone

The second forms are usually used with adjectives with more than three syllables, or with loanwords. This use is, however, not fixed yet. Especially in the Western dialect the use of mags is spreading also with shorter adjectives, while in the Eastern dialect also some longer adjectives use the first forms. In some remote villages of the Western dialect mags is replaced with pwe (from the Latin PLUS).

The comparison endings are usually added to the real root of the adjective, restoring an actually lost consonant:

  • agiw → agilyer, agilisime
  • awda → awdacyer, awdacisime

In the case of adjectives, whose nominative masculine singular form ends in -er with a mobile e, the superlative ending become -ime and is added directly to the -er ending without losing the -e-:

  • veter → vetryer, veterime
  • ceweber → cewebryer, ceweberime

Some adjectives have irregular forms for the comparative and superlative grade:

Positive Comparative Superlative English
Bone melyer owtime good
Grôd mayer masime big, great
Mawe peyer pesime bad, evil
Parve minyer minime little, small

Demonstrative adjectives

There are two demonstrative adjectives: isvi which means that, and ste which means this; both they have an irregular conjugation:

  • Isvi, that
Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative isvi avi ivi yivi evi avi
Genitive iesvi iesvi iesvi orôvi arôvi orôvi
Accusative ôvi ôvi ivi esvi asvi avi
  • Ste, this
Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative ste sta sto styi ste sta
Genitive sties sties sties storô starô storô
Accusative stô stô sto stes stes sta

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

The personal pronouns in Novelatine have an irregular declension. Some of them have an alternative root in some cases. In the third persons the pronouns are divided for gender, in singular (as in English) and in plural number.

The most important feature, is the retention of the dative forms, for all personal pronouns:

Person English Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
1st sing. I eo mey mi me
2nd sing. you (sing.) tu tuy ti te
3rd sing. f. he le lies luy
3rd sing. m. she la lies luy
3rd sing. n. it lo lies luy lo
1st plur. we nos nestri nob nos
2nd plur. you (plur.) vos vestri vob vos
3rd plur. m. they (m.) lyi lyor lyis les
3rd plur. f. they (f.) le lyar lyis les
3rd plur. n. they (n.) la lyor lyis la
reflexive self - suy si se

The singular accusative masculine and feminine 3rd person form becomes lon before a vowel:

  • Tu lon ams?: Do you love him/her?

In the northern villages of the western valley, this form becomes lom before a vowel:

  • Tu lom ams?: Do you love him/her?

Accusative and dative pronominal forms usually become clitics when they are found after imperative forms, which end with a vowel:

  • Dami ses cwaves sies awtomobils: Give me the keys of the car!
  • Spewtalo!: Look at it! (to one person)
  • Spewtad lo: Look at it! (to two or more people)

If there are two pronominal forms, a dative and an accusative form, they cliticize together, following the ordinary dative-accusative order, only if the forms end in a vowel:

  • Damilo: Give it to me
  • Danob lo: Give it to us

With most prepositions, which usually require the genitive case, dative forms of personal pronouns are used. The only exception is the preposition , which has exceptional forms for the first and the second persons:

  • eo: mecô (with me)
  • tu: tecô (with you sing.)
  • nos: nobiscô (with us)
  • vos: vobiscô (with you plur.)

The personal pronouns have also replaced the possessive adjectives and pronouns:

The possession is expressed by the dative personal pronouns, placed after the possessed noun:

  • Eo son amicô ti vidye: I see your friend

The dative forms do not agree with the possessed noun, only with the gender and the number of the possessor(s).

  • Eo son amicô lyis vidye: I see their friend
  • Eo ses amices ti vidye: I see your friends

The genitive forms are used instead of the possessive pronouns, or when the adjectives would be used as object in the sentence.

  • Ste can mey e: This dog is mine
  • Styi cans mey sôt: These dogs are mine

Relative pronoun

The relative pronoun cwi has an irregular declension:

Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative cwi cwe cwo cwi cwe cwe
Genitive chies chies chies cwor cwar cwor
Accusative cwê cwô cwo cwes cwes cwe

Indefinite pronouns

  • Alcwi: it may mean someone, somebody, something or anyone, anybody, anything. It declines like cwi:
Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative alcwi alcwe alcwo alcwi alcwe alcwe
Genitive alchies alchies alchies alcwor alcwar alcwor
Accusative alcwê alcwô alcwo alcwes alcwes alcwe
  • Nemê: it may mean no one, nobody, only with humans or other animated beings. It has an irregular declension, only in the singular:
Case Forms
Nominative nemê
Genitive nemins
Accusative neminê
  • Niw: it means nothing, with things or action or statuses. It has an irregular declension, only in the singular:
Case Forms
Nominative niw
Genitive nulriy
Accusative niw
  • Omcwi: it may mean everyone, everybody, everything. It declines like cwi:
Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative omcwi omcwe omcwo omcwi omcwe omcwe
Genitive omchies omchies omchies omcwor omcwar omcwor
Accusative omcwê omcwô omcwo omcwes omcwes omcwe

Numbers

These are the Novelatine numbers, with their cardinal and ordinal forms:

Number Cardinal Ordinal
1 une pryime
2 due secunde
3 W: tre / E: ter terce
4 W: cwatre / E: cwater cwarte
5 cwêc cwête
6 W: sey / E: ses seste
7 sewtê sewtime
8 owto owtave
9 novê none
10 decê decime
11 ôdecê ôdecime
12 dwodecê dwodecime
13 tredecê tredecime
14 cwaterdecê cwaterdecime
15 cwêdecê cwêdecime
16 W: seydecê / E: sesdecê W: seydecime / E: sesdecime
17 sewtêdecê sewtêdecime
18 dwedevyinti dwedevyigesime
19 ôdevyinti ôdevyigesime
20 vyinti vyigesime
21 vyinti une vyigesime prime
22 vyinti due vyigesime secunde
30 tryinta tryintesime
40 cwadryinta cwadryintesime
50 cwêcyinta cwêcyintesime
60 sesyinta sesyintesime
70 sewtyinta sewtyintesime
80 owtyinta owtyintesime
90 novyinta novyintesime
100 cêtô cêtesime
200 dwecêtyi dwecêtesime
300 trecêtyi trecêtesime
400 cwadregêtyi cwadregêtesime
500 cwêgêtyi cwêgêtesime
600 sescêtyi sescêtesime
700 sewtêgêtyi sewtêgêtesime
800 owtêgêtyi owtêgêtesime
900 nôgêtyi nôgêtesime
1000 mil milesime
2000 due milya due milesime
1.000.000 milyô milyonesime
1.000.000.000 milyarde milyardesime

Declension

Most numbers are indeclinable, while only a few agree with their nouns.

  • Une declines like a 1st class adjectives: une, una, unô, etc. It has no plural forms.
  • Due has its own declension: m/f/n nominative: due; m/n genitive: dwor, f genitive: dwar; m/f/n accusative: dues
  • The multiples of cêtô, like dwecêtyi, trecêtyi, etc., decline like 1st class plural adjectives, even if there are other indeclinable numbers after them: sescêta vyinti cwêc poma: 625 apples; le dwecêtes dues roses imyit: he bought 202 roses
  • Milya is the actual plural of mil, but it is indeclinable.
  • Milyô and milyarde are nouns (respectively of III and II declension). They decline according to their rule in the sentence and their nouns are in genitive cases: Due milyons ominô: two million people; unô milyonê bawteryerô côtê, it contains one million bacteria

Verbs

Novelatine has a strictly conservative and quite difficult verbal morphology. The complex verbal system of ancient Latin is retained, also with the passive synthetic forms. Nevertheless an analitic new future tense was developed, together with two conditional tenses. An isolated resultative form was also developed.

When verbs are listed, more forms are presented. As exemple, we list the verb amar, to love:

  • Amar: infinitive form
  • ame: first singular person of the indicative present tense
  • amay: first singular person of the indicative perfect tense
  • amate: past participle, masculine nominative singular form

The first singular person of the indicative present tense shows the present root, by dropping the -e, -er or -o ending:

  • ame → am-e → am- (present root)

The first singular person of the indicative perfect tense shows the perfect root, by dropping the -ay, -yi or -iyi ending:

  • amay → am-ay → am- (perfect root)

This is necessary, as almost all irregular verbs have a different perfect root:

  • legsyi → legs-yi → legs- (perfect root) / leg- (present root)

The Novelatine verbs have six moods:

  • Infinitive, which has 2 tenses: present, past
  • Indicative, which has 5 tenses: present, imperfect, perfect, plusquamperfect and future
  • Subjunctive, which has 5 tenses: present, imperfect, perfect, plusquamperfect and future
  • Conditional, which has 2 tenses: present, past
  • Resultative, which has 1 tense: past
  • Imperative, which has 1 tense: present

and four adjectival forms:

  • Present participle
  • Past participle
  • Future participle
  • Gerundive

Conjugations

Novelatine verbs are divided in four conjugations:

Conjugation Ending
I -ar
II -er (palatal)
III -er (non palatal)
IV -yir

The second conjugation uses the same endings of the third conjugation, plus a palatal infix -y, in many forms. For clarity's sake, we don't consider this verbal class as a subgroup of the third conjugation, but as an independent conjugation class, according to the tradition of Latin four conjugations' pattern.

Indicative

Present tense (têpe praysês)

The present tense is formed by adding some endings to the present root of the chosen verb.

These are the endings:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. ame monye lege finye
II sing. ams mons legs fins
III sing. am mon leg fin
I plur. amem monyim legim finyim
II plur. amez monyiz legiz finyiz
III plur. amêt monyêt legôt finyôt

In the singular second person forms, if the root ends with a bilabial stop ([t] or [d]), these consonants merge with the endings in z ([ʦ] or [ʣ] respectively):

  • Spewtar, to watch, to look atspewz [spɛwʦ], you are watching
  • Eseder, to eatesez [ezeʣ], you are eating

However if the root ends with two consonants (except for -yC-, -wC- and -rC- and -lC, with C that is not y), the endings become I: -es, II: -yis, III: -is, IV: -yis

If the verbal root ends with -Vw-, the -w- becomes -l-:

  • Êcowar, to inhabit, to live inêcols, you inhabit, you live in

The third singular person usually adds a Ø-ending or zero ending, or it can be said it adds no ending. If the verbal root ends in more than a consonant, this could trigger some changes in the verbal root:

  • if the verbal root ends with -Cr, where C is a stop ([p], [b], [k], [g]), the -r- is retained:
cewebrar: cewebre, cewebres, cewebr, cewebrem...
  • if the verbal root ends with -Cw- or Cy, the -w- or -y- are dropped:
locwer: locwe, locwis, loc, locwim...
côsilyar: côsilye, côsilyes, côsil, côsilyem...
punyar: punye, punyes, pun, punyem

(Note that in this example -y- is retained for the second singular person, as it is part of the root, instead of part of the ending)

In the Estern dialect, since the groups -ly-, -ny- and -sy- are read as the single consonants [ʎ], [ɲ] and [ʃ] respectively, in the third singular person l, n and s are still read as [ʎ], [ɲ] and [ʃ], even if the -y- is dropped:

  • côsilyes: W [kõˈsiljes] / E [kõˈsiʎes], côsil: W [kõˈsil] / E [kõˈsiʎ]
  • punyes: W [ˈpunjes] / E [puɲes], pun: W [ˈpun] / E [ˈpuɲ]

Imperfect tense (têpe êperfewtô)

The following endings have to be added to the present root:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. amavô monyivô legyivô finyivô
II sing. amavs monyivs legyivs finyivs
III sing. amav monyiv legyiv finyiv
I plur. amavem monyivem legyivem finyivem
II plur. amavez monyivez legyivez finyivez
III plur. amavêt monyivêt legyivêt finyivêt

In the third conjugation if the verb root ends in -Cw, the endings lose the -y-:

  • Locwer, to speak → locwivô, locwivs, locwiv..

If the verbal root ends in -Vw-, the -w- becomes -l-:

  • Cower, to cultivate → colyivô, colyivs, colyiv..

Perfect tense (têpe perfewtô)

The perfect tense is formed by adding some endings to the perfect root of the chosen verb. The perfect root usually coincide with the present root, as we can see in the case of most verbs of the first conjugation, but in the other conjugations, especially with irregular verbs, the root is not the same.

These are the usual endings:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. amay monyi legsyi finiyi
II sing. amayst monyust legsyist finiyist
III sing. amaw monyut legsyit finiyit
I plur. amaym monyum legsyim finiyim
II plur. amayz monyuz legsyiz finiyiz
III plur. amayerôt monyerôt legsyerôt finiyerôt

When a verbs belongs to a certain conjugation, it will usually add the conjugation's typical endings. However, some irregular verbs of the first, the second and the fourth conjugation, add the third declension's endings to their irregular perfect root.

  • Dar, Ir → dedyi, dedyist, dedyit, dedyim, dedyiz, dedyerôt
  • Ryider, IIr → ryisyi, ryisyist, ryisyit, ryisyim, ryisyiz, ryisyerôt
  • Capyir, IVr → cepyi, cepyist, cepyit, cepyim, cepyiz, cepyerôt

They will be marked with Ir, IIr and IIIr in the Lexycon section.

Plusquamperfect tense (têpe pwuscwôperfewtô)

The following endings have to be added to the perfect root:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. amayerô monyerô legsyerô finiyerô
II sing. amayers monyers legsyers finiyers
III sing. amayer monyer legsyer finiyer
I plur. amayerem monyerem legsyerem finiyerem
II plur. amayerez monyerez legsyerez finiyerez
III plur. amayerêt monyerêt legsyerêt finiyerêt

Future tense (têpe futurô)

The synthetic future tense of ancient Latin has entirely disappeared, and it was replaced by a new analytic future form.

It is formed with the present forms of the verb aber and the infinite form of the main verb:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. ao amar moner leger finyir
II sing. as amar moner leger finyir
III sing. a amar moner leger finyir
I plur. avyim amar moner leger finyir
II plur. avyiz amar moner leger finyir
III plur. ôt amar moner leger finyir

Examples:

  • Eo ao caner: I will sing
  • Cras azô mar ao vader: Tomorrow I will go to the beach

Subjunctive

Present tense (têpe praysês)

The following endings have to be added to the present root:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. amê mon legô fin
II sing. amis monyes leges finyes
III sing. ami monye lege finye
I plur. amim monyem legem finyem
II plur. amiz monyez legez finyez
III plur. amêt monyôt legêt finyêt

Imperfect tense (têpe êperfewtô)

The following endings have to be added to the present root:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. amarê monerê legerê finyirê
II sing. amars moners legers finyirs
III sing. amar moner leger finyir
I plur. amarem monerem legerem finyirem
II plur. amarez monerez legerez finyirez
III plur. amarêt monerêt legerêt finyirêt

Perfect tense (têpe perfewtô)

The following endings have to be added to the perfect root:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. amayerê monyerê legsyerê finiyerê
II sing. amayeris monyeris legsyeris finiyeris
III sing. amayeri monyeri legsyeri finiyeri
I plur. amayerim monyerim legsyerim finiyerim
II plur. amayeriz monyeriz legsyeriz finiyeriz
III plur. amayerêt monyerêt legsyerêt finiyerêt

Plusquamperfect tense (têpe pwuscwôperfewtô)

The following endings have to be added to the perfect root:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. amaysê monyisê legsyisê finiyisê
II sing. amaysis monyisis legsyisis finiyisis
III sing. amaysi monyisi legsyisi finiyisi
I plur. amaysim monyisim legsyisim finiyisim
II plur. amaysiz monyisiz legsyisiz finiyisiz
III plur. amaysêt monyisêt legsyisêt finiyisêt

Future tense (têpe futurô)

It is formed with the subjunctive present forms of the verb aber and the infinite form of the main verb:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. abyô amar moner leger finyir
II sing. abyes amar moner leger finyir
III sing. abye amar moner leger finyir
I plur. abyem amar moner leger finyir
II plur. abyez amar moner leger finyir
III plur. abyôt amar moner leger finyir

Examples:

  • Crede co abyes caner: I believe you will sing
  • Crede co cras azô mar abyes vader: I believe that tomorrow you will go to the beach

Conditional

The conditional forms have two tenses, the present and the past tense. It is an analytic mood, formed with the auxiliary verb aver.

The conditional present is formed with the perfect tense forms of the verb aber, plus the infinitive form of the main verb:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. avyi amar moner leger finyir
II sing. avyust amar moner leger finyir
III sing. avyut amar moner leger finyir
I plur. avyum amar moner leger finyir
II plur. avyuz amar moner leger finyir
III plur. avyerôt amar moner leger finyir

Examples:

  • Eo avyi caner: I would sing
  • Cras azô mar avyi vader: Tomorrow I would go to the beach

The conditional past is formed with the plusquamperfect tense form of the verb aber, plus the infinitive form of the main verb:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. avyerô amar moner leger finyir
II sing. avyers amar moner leger finyir
III sing. avyer amar moner leger finyir
I plur. avyerem amar moner leger finyir
II plur. avyerez amar moner leger finyir
III plur. avyerêt amar moner leger finyir

Examples:

  • Eo avyerô caner: I would have sung
  • Azô mar avyerô vader: I would have gone to the beach

Resultative

The resultative form is not inherited from Ancient Latin, but it is a later creation, most likely under the influence of the Italian passato prossimo.

It is formed with the present forms of the verb aber and the past participle without the adjectival endings:

  • advenyir, to happen → advête → advêt: cwo a advêt?, what has happened? what did just happen?
  • facer, to do → fawte → fawt: cwo as fawt?, what have you done? what did you just do?

Its meaning and use are slightly different between the two dialects, but its basic meaning is pointing out the result of an action. In a more linguistically precise definition, it is a perfective past form of the verb.

Imperative

The imperative mood has only one tense, the present tense. It is used to give orders, and it has only the second person forms.

The following endings have to be added to the present root:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
II sing. ama mone lege finyi
II plur. amad monyid legid finyid

Some III conjugation verbs have a short imperative form:

  • dicer, to say, to tell: Di! (instead of dice!), say! tell!
  • facer, to do, to make: Fa! (instead of face!): do! make!
  • vader, to go: Va! (instead of vade!): go!

Impersonal forms

These forms are called impersonal, because they are not conjugated as usual verbs, but they represent special forms, usually considered as adjectival forms.

Gerundive

The gerundive is an adjectival form, which usually means which must be X-ed. It declines like a normal 1st class adjective, thus we will show only the masculine nominative singular form.

I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
amôde monêde legêde finyêde

Present participle

The present participle is an adjectival form, which usually means which X-s, similar to the English -ing form. With transitive verbs it has an active meaning.

I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
amôs monês legês finyês

They have a special declension (also some nouns decline this way):

  • Example: Amôs, loving, which loves.
Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative amôs amôs amôs amôz amôz amôtya
Genitive amôz amôz amôz amôt amôt amôt
Accusative amôtê amôtê amôs amôtes amôtes amôtya
  • Example: Legês, reading, which reads.
Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative legês legês legês legêz legêz legêtya
Genitive legêz legêz legêz legêt legêt legêt
Accusative legêtê legêtê legês legêtes legêtes legêtya
  • Example: Finyês, ending, which ends.
Singular Plural
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative finyês finyês finyês finyêz finyêz finyêtya
Genitive finyêz finyêz finyêz finyêt finyêt finyêt
Accusative finyêtê finyêtê finyês finygêtes finyêtya finyêtes

Past participle

The past participle is an adjectival form, which usually means X-ed, similar to the English past participle. With transitive verbs it has a passive meaning.

It declines like a normal 1st class adjective, thus we will show only the masculine nominative singular form

I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
amate monite lewte finyite

The forms of the past participle are mostly irregular in the third conjugation. Most irregular verbs have irregular participial forms:

  • Caner, to sing → côte, sung
  • Corer, to run → curse, run
  • Fêger, to fake → fiwte, faked
  • Scryiber, to write → scryiwte, written
  • Venyir, to come → vête, come

Past participle are usually distinguished by the -te ending, which in some irregular verbs can become -se.

Future participle

The future participle is an adjectival form, which usually means which will X; it has no English counterparts. With transitive verbs it has an active meaning.

It is formed by dropping the masculine ending of the past participle, and adding the -ure endings:

  • Venyir, to come → vête → vêt- + -ure → vêture, coming, which will come

It declines like a normal 1st class adjective, thus we will show only the masculine nominative singular form

I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
amature moniture lewture finyiture

Passive forms

Novelatine has particular passive forms for its verbs, because, differently from most modern European language, but similar to Latin and Ancient Greek, in some tenses it has retained simple forms (the verb has one single form), instead of compound forms (as in English auxiliary verb + participle).

  • Monyires: you are warned
  • Crede co monyôter: I believe they are being warned

Simple form are used in the indicative present and imperfect tense, in subjunctive indicative present and imperfect tense, in the imperative mood and in the infinitive. The other tenses and moods are built like English, with the conjugated forms of the verb eser, to be + the past participle, or, for compound tenses, regularly with the conjugated forms of the verb aber, to have + the passive form of the infinitive.

  • Monite fuyist: you were warned
  • Tu as moniri: you will be warned

Infinitive

The following endings have to be added to the present root:

I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
amari moneri legeri finyiri

Or instead it can be said, that the passive infinitive form is built by adding -i to the normal infinitive forms.

Indicative present tense

The following endings have to be added to the present root:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. amer monyer leger finyer
II sing. ameres monyires legires finyires
III sing. ameter monyiter legiter finyiter
I plur. amemer monyimer legimer finyimer
II plur. amemnyi monyimnyi legimnyi finyimny
III plur. amêter monyêter legôter finyôter

Indicative imperfect tense

The following endings have to be added to the present root:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. amaver monyiver legyiver finyiver
II sing. amaveres monyiveres legyiveres finyiveres
III sing. amaveter monyiveter legyiveter finyiveter
I plur. amavemer monyivemer legyivemer finyivemer
II plur. amavemnyi monyivemnyi legyivemnyi finyivemnyi
III plur. amavêter monyivêter legyivêter finyivêter

Indicative perfect tense

The passive indicative perfect tense is a compound tense, formed with the past participle, which usually agree in number and gender with the subject, and the perfect tense forms of the verb eser, to be:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. amate, -a, ô monite, -a, ô lewte, -a, ô finyite, -a, ô fuyi
II sing. amate, -a, ô monite, -a, ô lewte, -a, ô finyite, -a, ô fuyist
III sing. amate, -a, ô monite, -a, ô lewte, -a, ô finyite, -a, ô fuyit
I plur. amatyi, -e, a monityi, -e, a lewtyi, -e, a finyityi, -e, a fuyim
II plur. amatyi, -e, a monityi, -e, a lewtyi, -e, a finyityi, -e, a fuyiz
III plur. amatyi, -e, a monityi, -e, a lewtyi, -e, a finyityi, -e, a fuyerôt

Indicative plusquamperfect tense

The passive indicative plusquamperfect tense is a compound tense, formed with the past participle, which usually agree in number and gender with the subject, and the plusquamperfect tense forms of the verb eser, to be:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. amate, -a, ô monite, -a, ô lewte, -a, ô finyite, -a, ô fuyerô
II sing. amate, -a, ô monite, -a, ô lewte, -a, ô finyite, -a, ô fuyers
III sing. amate, -a, ô monite, -a, ô lewte, -a, ô finyite, -a, ô fuyer
I plur. amatyi, -e, a monityi, -e, a lewtyi, -e, a finyityi, -e, a fuyerem
II plur. amatyi, -e, a monityi, -e, a lewtyi, -e, a finyityi, -e, a fuyerez
III plur. amatyi, -e, a monityi, -e, a lewtyi, -e, a finyityi, -e, a fuyerêt

Indicative future tense

It is formed with the present forms of the verb aber and the infinite passive form of the main verb:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. ao amari moneri legeri finyiri
II sing. as amari moneri legeri finyiri
III sing. a amari moneri legeri finyiri
I plur. avyim amari moneri legeri finyiri
II plur. avyiz amari moneri legeri finyiri
III plur. ôt amari moneri legeri finyiri

Examples:

  • Syi documêtyi cras ôt videri: The documents will be seen tomorrow

Subjunctive present tense

The following endings have to be added to the present root:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. amêr monyôr legôr finyôr
II sing. amires monyeres legeres finyeres
III sing. amiter monyeter legeter finyeter
I plur. amimer monyemer legemer finyemer
II plur. amimnyi monyemnyi legemnyi finyemnyi
III plur. amêter monyôter legêter finyêter

Subjunctive imperfect tense

The following endings have to be added to the present root:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. amarer monerer legerer finyirer
II sing. amareres monereres legereres finyireres
III sing. amareter monereter legereter finyireter
I plur. amaremer moneremer legeremer finyiremer
II plur. amaremnyi moneremnyi legerenyi finyiremnyi
III plur. amarêter monerêter legerêter finyirêter

Subjunctive perfect tense

The passive subjunctive perfect tense is a compound tense, formed with the past participle, which usually agree in number and gender with the subject, and the subjunctive perfect tense forms of the verb eser, to be:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. amate, -a, ô monite, -a, ô lewte, -a, ô finyite, -a, ô fuyerê
II sing. amate, -a, ô monite, -a, ô lewte, -a, ô finyite, -a, ô fuyers
III sing. amate, -a, ô monite, -a, ô lewte, -a, ô finyite, -a, ô fuyer
I plur. amatyi, -e, a monityi, -e, a lewtyi, -e, a finyityi, -e, a fuyerim
II plur. amatyi, -e, a monityi, -e, a lewtyi, -e, a finyityi, -e, a fuyeriz
III plur. amatyi, -e, a monityi, -e, a lewtyi, -e, a finyityi, -e, a fuyerêt

Subjunctive plusquamperfect tense

The passive subjunctive plusquamperfect tense is a compound tense, formed with the past participle, which usually agree in number and gender with the subject, and the subjunctive plusquamperfect tense forms of the verb eser, to be:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. amate, -a, ô monite, -a, ô lewte, -a, ô finyite, -a, ô fuyisê
II sing. amate, -a, ô monite, -a, ô lewte, -a, ô finyite, -a, ô fuyisis
III sing. amate, -a, ô monite, -a, ô lewte, -a, ô finyite, -a, ô fuyisi
I plur. amatyi, -e, a monityi, -e, a lewtyi, -e, a finyityi, -e, a fuyisim
II plur. amatyi, -e, a monityi, -e, a lewtyi, -e, a finyityi, -e, a fuyisiz
III plur. amatyi, -e, a monityi, -e, a lewtyi, -e, a finyityi, -e, a fuyisêt

Subjunctive future tense

It is formed with the present subjunctive forms of the verb aber and the infinite passive form of the main verb:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. abyô amari moneri legeri finyiri
II sing. abyes amari moneri legeri finyiri
III sing. abye amari moneri legeri finyiri
I plur. abyem amari moneri legeri finyiri
II plur. abyez amari moneri legeri finyiri
III plur. abyôt amari moneri legeri finyiri

Examples:

  • Crede co syi documêtyi cras abyôt videri: I believe the documents will be seen tomorrow

Conditional present tense

It is formed with the perfect tense forms of the verb aber and the infinite passive form of the main verb:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. avyi amari moneri legeri finyiri
II sing. avyust amari moneri legeri finyiri
III sing. avyut amari moneri legeri finyiri
I plur. avyum amari moneri legeri finyiri
II plur. avyuz amari moneri legeri finyiri
III plur. avyerôt amari moneri legeri finyiri

Examples:

  • Syi documêtyi avyerôt videri: The documents would be seen

Conditional past tense

It is formed with the plusquamperfect tense forms of the verb aber and the infinite passive form of the main verb:

Person I conj. II conj. III conj. IV conj.
I sing. avyerô amari moneri legeri finyiri
II sing. avyers amari moneri legeri finyiri
III sing. avyer amari moneri legeri finyiri
I plur. avyerem amari moneri legeri finyiri
II plur. avyerez amari moneri legeri finyiri
III plur. avyerêt amari moneri legeri finyiri

Examples:

  • Syi documêtyi avyerêt videri: The documents would have been seen

Verb eser (to be)

Indicative
Person Present Imperfect Perfect Pl.perfect
I sing. erô fuyi fuyerô
II sing. es ers fuyist fuyers
III sing. e er fuyit fuyer
I plur. some erem fuyim fuyerem
II plur. ez erez fuyiz fuyerez
III plur. sôt erôt fuyerôt fuyerêt
Subjunctive
Person Present Imperfect Perfect Pl.perfect
I sing. eserê fuyerê fuyisê
II sing. ses eseris fuyers fuyisis
III sing. set eseri fuyer fuyisi
I plur. sem eserim fuyerim fuyisim
II plur. sez eseriz fuyeriz fuyisiz
III plur. sêt eserêt fuyerêt fuyisêt

Other compound tenses and moods are formed according to the usual grammar rules.

Other irregular verbs

I conjugation

  • dar: do, das, da, dam, daz, dôt
  • star: sto, stas, sta, stam, staz, stôt

II conjugation

  • aber: ao, as, a, avyim, avyiz, ôt, perf.: aviy, avyust...
  • poser: posô, podes, pode, W:posom/E:posome, podez, posôt, imperf.: poderô, poders...; perf.: podiy, podyust..; subj. pres.: posê, poses, pose, posem, posez, posêt; subj. imperf.: poserê, posers...
  • tener: tenye, tens, tê, tenyim, tenyiz, W: tenyêt/E: têt
  • voler: volye, vows, vut, volyim, volyiz, volyôt

III conjugation

  • facer: facye, W: facs/E: fac, W: fac/ E: fa, facim, faciz, facyôt
  • noscer: nosce, noscis, nos, noscim, nosciz, noscôt

IV conjugation