Senjecas Syntax

Word Order - saɱpa̋fa

4.1.1 Senjecas has an object-verb (OV) syntax, which means that all modifiers (adjectives, possessives, postpositional phrases, clauses) are placed before the noun they modify. The finite verb is the last element in its sentence.

4.1.2. Sentence order is: (subject) + (adverbial time phrase) + (adverbial place phrase) + (other postpositional phrase) + (object) + finite verb + (interrogative) + (negative).

The millstone under the oak tree is heavy.

perküı̋s néra mólta̋ino gų̋ro e̋sa:

The stag whose antlers are broken is fighting.

ȝo nés cą̋ros ȝa̋faþos vűa—ke̋rɱe ca̋ta:

4.1.3 A verb in the imperative mood is placed last in the sentence. The imperative form is used for the jussive and the hortatory moods as well. If the context is clear, no personal pronoun is needed as subject. If the imperative verb has a direct object, a predicate adjective, or a dependent verb, these precede the imperative verb.

Throw the ball.

(tú) ge̋lom ȝę̋e:

4.1.4 If the personal pronoun is repeated in the sentence, the subject pronoun is omitted.

Throw your ball.

tús ge̋lom ȝę̋e:

Throw his ball.

(tú) nús ge̋lom ȝę̋e:

4.1.5 In an OV language titles are postposed.

King William I reigned 21 years.

se̋mtu ɱilhe̋lmu rę̋ᵹu xÿűr sem dı̋lon e-re̋ᵶa:

Definitions - tősas

4.2.1 A sentence expresses a thought in words. Syntax treats of the relation of these words to one another. A sentence may contain a declaration, a question, a command (imperative or subjunctive), or an exclamation. Each of these may be either affirmative or negative.

4.2.2 Every sentence must contain a verb. The verb may or may not be accompanied by other words. The subject is that about which something is stated. The predicate is that which is stated about the subject. For example, in the sentence ma̋kis na̋nmis vų̋a, the poppies are in bloom, "the poppies" is the subject and "are in bloom" is the predicate.

4.2.3. A verb makes the simplest form of sentence:

Descriptions of the weather: sų̋ɱa, It is raining.

When the context is clear: (nu) rę̋sa', He runs.

4.2.4 A simple sentence contains only one clause.

4.2.5 When any form of e̋sa or vų̋a, be, connects the subject with a following noun, adjective, or phrase, the verb is called the copula, and what follows is called the predicate, e.g., ma̋nos sőȝos vų̋a, (my) hands are cold. Because there are two words expressing existence, the copula may not be omitted in Senjecas.

4.2.6 That upon which the action of a verb is exerted is called the object. The object may be either direct or indirect, e.g., in nu tı̋r mę̋on te̋rnon oþús o e-lűᵹa, he promised him three measures of wheat, "three measures" is the direct object and "him" the indirect object.

4.2.7 Verbs which can have a direct object are called transitive; those which cannot are called intransitive. In Senjecas, most verbs are ambitransitive, that is, they can be either transitive or intransitive.

Predicate Noun and Adjective – ɱa̋iþo fę̋toküe fęþga̋noküe

4.3.1 With verbs signifying to be, to become, to appear, to taste, to be named, to be chosen, to be made, to be thought, to be regarded, etc., a noun or adjective in the predicate is in the same case as the subject. These verbs are called copulative verbs.

The king has become angered by your speech.

re̋ᵹu tús leuðsaɱős ge̋gaþu ı̨̋la:

This man is king.

i-ɱı̋ru re̋ᵹu e̋sa:

These apples taste good.

i-abe̋los da̋los ƶę̋sa:

4.3.2 The predicate adjective with these verbs agrees with the subject in class, number and case.

That girl is very pretty.

a-pÿa̋þu lábu gőbu e̋sa:

4.3.3 A predicate adjective or noun is placed immediately before the finite verb phrase.

This custom is popular with the young people.

i-gűa bekűm áða le̋uða vų̋a:

Apposition – ȝővta

4.4.1 A substantive annexed to another substantive to describe it, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in case. This is called apposition. The noun thus used is called an appositive and is placed after the noun to which it is an appositive.

I, the prince, have given an order.

mu asűru ę̋vom ę̋va:

4.4.2 This structure is also used to translate the expressions "none other than" and "nothing else but", using nyf̣únu, no one else.

Walking up the steps was none other than my old school buddy.

renı̋ȝon ána ne̋ðantu nyfÿúnu ƶę̋ru mu-túnępǫ̋nu e-vűa:

4.4.3 A noun may be in apposition with the subject or the object of a sentence, where in English "as" or a like word would be used.

Horses are being offered to the sun god as a sacrifice.

mőres lı̋to sųlȝuműs o lı̋taþes ı̋la:

4.4.4 The appositive of contents denotes a receptacle and that which it contains.

The child is carrying a basket of peaches.

cı̋cu küe̋som te̋fin ne̋xa:

Adjectives – fęþga̋nlos

4.5.1 Agreement of Adjectives – fęþganlőm ċőxa
- 4.5.1.1 Attributive adjectives agree with their substantives in class only. This applies to adjectives of whatever kind: determinate, non-determinate, or participles.

red box, re̋uðo ı̋vko; red boxes, re̋uðo ı̋vkos

red bird, re̋uðe ɱe̋ȝe; red birds, re̋uðe ɱe̋ȝes

red flower, re̋uði na̋ni; red flowers, re̋uði na̋nis

- 4.5.1.2 If, however, the attributive adjective is separated from its substantive by another phrase, it must then agree in class, case and number.

the white cow in the stable.

pa̋ȝes ᵹomős éna ɱa̋kes:

- 4.5.1.3 Because they are not preposed, predicate adjectives must agree with their substantives in class, case and number. They may be connected to their substantives by the copula or a copulative verb, becoming a part of the predicate or assertion made of the subject.

The doves are white.

pelőnves pa̋ȝes e̋sa:

- 4.5.1.4 An attributive adjective (süę̋ðɱo fęþga̋nlo) qualifying several substantives agrees with the nearest substantive in class and is understood with the rest.

the injured horse and rider.

ma̋te mőreküe mı̋mluküe

- 4.5.1.5 A predicate adjective (ɱa̋iþo fęþga̋nlo) qualifying several substantives agrees in class, number and case with the nearest substantive.

The horse and rider are injured.

mőreküe mı̋mluküe ma̋tu vų̋a:

4.5.2 Adjectives as Nouns - fęþga̋nlos fęþőm góþa
- 4.5.2.1 An attributive adjective may be used as a noun. It is put in the class of the missing noun.

pőri, just; pőru, just man

vı̋ni, important; vı̋nos, important things

The Cases – ne̋udas

The Nominative Case - fęþne̋uda

The nominative case marks substantives that are used as the subject of a finite verb or in the predicate after copulative verbs.

ɱı̋ru e-güe̋ma:, the man came.

nu ɱı̋ru e̋sa:, He is a man.

The Genitive Case - ðęne̋uda

The primary function of the genitive case is to state the position of a thing or an idea, either literally or figuratively. Other uses include the partitive idea or the idea of separation or source. A substantive in the genitive case may limit the meaning of another substantive, to express various relations, many of which are denoted by "of" or by the possessive case in English.

The Genitive Case with Nouns – fętőm súna ðęne̋uda

4.6.2.1.1 The stationary genitive is used to mark the objects of postpositions that do not indicate a change of position.

The wounded saiga stood under the fir tree.

ɱą̋aþe dı̋ᵹe ðanı̋s néra e-cűra:

ɱą̋-a-þe	dı̋ᵹ-e	ðan-ı̋s	néra	e=cűr-a
wound-IND-PP	saiga-NOM.SG	fir.tree-GEN.SG	under	PST=stand-IND

4.6.2.1.2 The local genitive indicates the place at which something happens. It is used with the postposition éna.

The two armies clashed at the foot of the mountain.

d̮ő őmus ǧarős tųfős éna e-tų̋ga:

düő	őm-us	güar-ős	tųf-ős	éna	e=tų̋g-a
two	army-NOM.PL	mountain-GEN.SG	base-GEN.SG	at	PST=clash-IND

4.6.2.1.3 The temporal genitive indicates the time at which something happens. It is used with the postposition éna.

The caravan will set out at dawn.

sa̋þo vaiᵹa̋s éna u-vı̋da:

sa̋þ-o	vaiᵹ-a̋s	éna	u=vı̋d-a
caravan-NOM.SG	dawn-GEN.SG	at	FUT=leave-IND

4.6.2.1.4 The possessive genitive indicates possession or some other close relationship.

tąta̋s ɱę̋so, the father’s house

ɱirűm leidę̋fto, the men’s team

4.6.2.1.5 The subjective genitive indicates the subject of an action or feeling.

The love of the people (i.e., that the people have) for their king is great.

leuðűs ɱe̋na nu-ręᵹűs o me̋ƶa vų̋a:

leuð-űs	ɱe̋n-a	nu=ręᵹ-űs	o	me̋ƶ-a	vų̋-a
people-GEN.PL	love-NOM.SG	their=king-GEN.SG	for	great-NOM.SG	be-IND

4.6.2.1.6 The objective genitive indicates the object of an action or feeling.

The murder of the prince saddened the people.

asurűs ką̋da le̋uðum e-se̋uga:

asur-űs	ką̋d-a	le̋uð-um	e-se̋ug-a
prince-GEN.SG	murder-NOM.SG	people-ACC.SG	PST=sadden-IND

4.6.2.1.7 The metrical genitive marks substantives which measure space, time or value.

tı̋r aha̋s ta̋ᵹo, a three-day’s journey

bűn peda̋m ǫ̋ni da̋ri, an eight-foot tall tree

düő xÿur oȝe̋m mőre, a horse worth 40 sheep

4.6.2.1.8 The partitive genitive indicates the whole about which parts are spoken.

zɵðlűm ɱe̋umus, many of the farmers

4.6.2.1.9 The numerical genitive is used with the nouns sa̋to, hundred; tÿűmo, thousand; and the higher numbers. They and their compounds are used with a genitive plural noun.

ną̋l ną̋ɱos, four ships

nąɱőm ną̋l sa̋tos, 400 ships

The Genitive Case with Verbs – kątőm súna ðęne̋uda

4.6.2.2.1 As the attributive genitive stands in the relation of an attributive adjective to its substantive, so an expression in the genitive case may stand in the relation of a predicate adjective to a verb. Verbs signifying “to be”, “to become”, and other copulative verbs may have a predicate genitive expressing any of the relations of the attributive possessive.

4.6.2.2.2 The Possessive Genitive:

This law is the prince's.

i-þőro asurűs e̋sa:

i=þőr-o	asur-űs	e̋s-a
this=law-NOM.SG	prince-GEN.SG	be-IND

4.6.2.2.3 The Metrical Genitive:

The six-foot high tower has crumbled.

rűþ peda̋m þǫ̋ro mımı̨̋ka:

rűþ	ped-a̋m	þǫ̋r-o	mı~mı̨̋k-a
six	foot	GEN.SG	tower-NOM.SG	PRF~crumble-IND

4.6.2.2.4 Partitive Genitive:

My father was one of the hunted men.

mu-tą̋ta vędaþűm se̋m e-e̋sa:

mu=tą̋t-a	vęd-a-þ-űm	se̋m	e=e̋s-a
my=father-NOM.SG	hunt-IND-PP-GEN.PL	PST=be-IND

4.6.2.2.5 Any verb may take a partitive genitive if its action affects the object only in part.

He sends the soldiers [i.e., all of them].

nu sőþlun mı̋þa:

n-u	sőþl-un	mı̋þ-a
3-NOM.SG	soldier-ACC.PL	send-IND

He sends some of the soldiers.

nu soþlűmɛ mı̋þa:

n-u	soþl-űm-ɛ	mı̋þ-a
3-NOM.SG	soldier-GEN.PL-EPEN	send-IND

4.6.2.2.6 The verbs ge̋ma, seize; da̋ba, pull; zı̋da, drag; and nę̋ȝa, lead, may have a direct object accusative with a genitive of the part seized, pulled, etc., the genitive coming before the direct object accusative.

The lion had seized him by the leg.

sı̋nᵹe lakős þum e-gıge̋ma:

bı̋r-e	lak-ős	þ-um	e-gı~ge̋m-a
lion-NOM.SG	leg-GEN.SG	4-ACC.SG	PST=PRF~seize-IND

The two priestesses will lead the heifer by the horns.

d̬ő tove̋rus kidőm kase̋rem u-nę̋ȝa:

düő	tove̋r-us	kid-őm	kase̋r-em	u=nę̋ȝ-a
two	priestess-NOM.PL	horn-GEN.SG	heifer-ACC.SG	FUT=lead-IND

4.6.2.2.7 The verbs ą̋ɱa, hear; tűna, learn; pe̋ua, seek; and ı̋ga, request, may take a accusative of the thing heard, etc., and a genitive of the person from whom it was heard, learned, etc.

The people sought a ruling from the prince.

le̋uðu asurűs re̋kam e-pe̋ua:

le̋uð-u	asur-űs	re̋k-am	e=pe̋u-a
people-NOM.SG	prince-GEN.SG	ruling-ACC.SG	PST=seek-IND

4.6.2.2.8 The verbs pę̋la, fill; þı̋a, stuff; and są̋a, sate; take the accusative of the thing filled and the genitive of the contents.

The harvesters filled the baskets with grain.

kőilus etenős küę̋son e-pę̋la:

kőil-us	eten-ős	küę̋s-on	e=pę̋l-a
harvester-NOM.PL	grain-GEN.SG	basket-ACC.PL	PST=fill-IND

4.6.2.2.9 The verbs pa̋usa, release; še̋va, free; őȝa, remove; de̋usa, cease; műta, deprive; ka̋da, rob; and vǫ̋ura, steal, take the accusative of the thing or person released and the genitive of the thing released from.

The soldiers released the prisoners from their chains.

sőþlus þúm bukőm kőlaþun e-pą̋usa:

sőþl-us	þ-úm	buk-őm	kől-a-þ-un	e=pą̋us-a
soldier-NOM.SG	4-GEN.PL	chain-GEN.PL	imprison-IND-PP-ACC.PL	PST=releave-IND

4.6.2.2.10 Verbs signifying to accuse, to prosecute, to convict, to acquit, and to condemn, take a genitive of the crime and a accusative of the person.

The woman accused him of murder.

ǧe̋nu kąda̋s num e-ka̋ca:

gü e̋n-u	kąd-a̋s	þ-um	e=ka̋c-a
woman-NOM.SG	murder-GEN.SG	4-ACC.SG	PST=accuse-IND

4.6.2.2.11 The objective genitive follows many adjectives derived from the verbs in paragraphs 4.6.2.2.8 and 4.6.2.2.9.

The basket was full of grain.

k̬ę̋so etenős pę̋lo e-vų̋a:

küę̋s-o	eten-ős	pę̋lo-	e=vų̋-a
basket-NOM.SG	grain-GEN.SG	full-NOM.SG	PST=be-IND

4.6.2.2.12 Adjectives and adverbs of the comparative and equative degrees take the separative genitive with the postposition sóma.

The cheetah runs faster than the ostrich.

nı̋be talresle̋' sóma ǫ́svi rę̋sa:

nı̋b-e	talresl-e̋-'	sóma	o~ós-vi	rę̋s-a
cheetah-NOM.SG	ostrich-GEN.SG-ELIS	than	COMP~fast-ADV	run-IND

4.6.2.2.13 The indirect object of the action of a transitive verb is put in the genitive with the postposition o.

Give this book to the student.

tunűs o i-lűvom dǫ̋e:

tun-űs	o	i=lűv-om	dǫ̋-e
student-GEN.SG	to	this=book-ACC.SG	give-IMP

4.6.2.2.14 The person or thing for whose advantage or disadvantage anything is or is done, is put in the genitive with the postpositio éra.

Every good father labors for his children.

vı̋su vą̋du tą̋ta nu-ƶǫnaþűm éra dą̋ra:

vı̋su	vą̋du	tą̋t-a	nu=ƶǫnaþ-űm	éra	dą̋r-a
every	good	father-NOM.SG	his=child-GEN.PL	for	work-IND

4.6.2.2.15 Alienable possession, i.e., possession of tangible things which one might somehow cease to own or possess, is expressed with the verb űda, possess.

I have (own, possess) three cows.

mu tı̋r ɱa̋ken űda:

m-u	tı̋r	ɱa̋k-en	űd-a
1-NOM.SG	three	cow-ACC.PL	own-IND

4.6.2.2.16 Inalienable possession, i.e., possession of those things which cannot exist apart from a possessor, e.g., body parts or kin, is expressed by making that which is possessed the subject of the sentence and the possessor the indirect object with the permanent existential verb e̋sa.

I have blue eyes.

kǫ̋xo t̬a̋los mús o e̋sa:

kǫ̋xo	tüa̋l-os	m-ús	o	e̋s-a
blue	eye-NOM.PL	1-GEN.SG	to	be-IND

4.6.2.2.17 A special case of alienable possession exists when the object possessed is not one’s own or has been acquired illegally by using the temporary existential verb vűa.

I have three cows (which I have stolen or which belong to my neighbor).

tı̋r ɱa̋kes mús o vų̋a:

tı̋r	ɱa̋k-es	m-ús	o	vų̋-a
three	cow-NOM.PL	1-GEN.SG	to	be-IND

The Accusative Case – ȝąne̋uda

4.6.3.1 The primary use of the accusative case is to state a change in the position of a thing or an idea, either literally or figuratively.

4.6.3.2 The accusative case is used to mark the objects of postpositions that indicate a change of position.

The children ran out of the house.

cı̋cus ɱę̋som éha e-rę̋sa:

cı̋c-us	ɱę̋s-om	éha	e=rę̋s-a
child-NOM.PL	house-ACC.SG	out.of	PST=run-IND

4.6.3.3 The accusative case marks the direct object of the action of a transitive verb.

We do these things.

ɱu' son kı̋a:

ɱ-u-'	s-on	kı̋-a
3-NOM.SG-ELIS	this-ACC.PL	do-IND

4.6.3.4 Any transitive verb whose meaning permits takes an object of kindred signification. This object repeats the meaning already contained in the verb. An example in English is "to sing a song." Some English verbs that this construction will replace would be "make, have, get" and "hold."

The seamstress took three stitches in the small tear.

sÿųlu lų̋do renðős éna tı̋r sÿų̋on e-sÿų̋a:

ṡųl-u	lų̋do	renð-ős	éna	tı̋r	ṡų̋-on	e=ṡų̋-a
seamstress-NOM.SG	small	tear-GEN.SG	in	three	stitch-ACC.PL	PST=stitch-IND

4.6.3.5 The accusative case marks, with verbs of motion, the particular ground over which the motion passes.

The children crossed the bridge.

cı̋cus þőlom e-ta̋ra:

cı̋c-us	þől-om	e=ta̋r-a
child-NOM.PL	bridge-ACC.SG	PST=cross-IND

4.6.3.6 The accusative case marks substantives used as adverbial expressions of extent of time or space.

The house burned for two days.

ɱę̋so d̬ő a̋han e-a̋iða:

ɱę̋s-o	düő	a̋h-an	e=a̋ið-a
house-NOM.SG	two	day-ACC.PL	PST=burn-IND

4.6.3.7 Verbs signifying to name, to choose, to appoint, to make, to think, take an object and its appositive in the accusative case.

The prince appointed him general.

asűru num soþvę̋lum e-fę̋ta:

asűr-u	n-um	soþvę̋l-um	e=fę̋t-a
prince-NOM.SG	3-ACC.SG	general-ACC.SG	PST=appoint-IND

The Vocative Case – haɱne̋uda

4.6.4.1 The vocative case, accompanied, or not, by the vocative particle o, is used to mark direct address. The primary pitch shifts to the ultimate syllable.

General, your orders have been carried out.

o soþvęlű. (tús) ę̋vos þűkaþos ı̨̋la:

o	soþvęl-ű	t-ús	ę̋v-os	þűk-a-þ-os	i~ı̋l-a
VOC	general-VOC.SG	2s-GEN	command-NOM.PL	carry.out-IND-PP-NOM.PL	PRF~become-IND

Postpositions – pos̨a̋ɱos

There is a list of Senjecan postpositions in Appendix B.

4.7.1 Postpositions are independent words that connect words in a sentence with other parts of the sentence. With two exceptions, these words end in -a. These connecting words are placed after the nouns they govern. Depending on what is connected, the objects of postpositions are in either the accusative or the genitive case. If the postposition indicates a change in position, literally or figuratively, the object of the postposition is in the accusative case. If the postposition does not indicate a change in position, the object of the postposition is in the genitive case.

The thirsty cattle headed toward the river.

ą̋de ǧőuɱes dą̋em do e-a̋ta:

ą̋de	güőuɱ-es	dą̋-em	do	e=a̋t-a
thirsty	cow-NOM.PL	river-ACC.SG	to	PST=go-IND

The cattle at the river were sated.

dąe̋s éna ǧőuɱe' sa̋tes e-vų̋a:

dą-e̋s	éna	güőuɱ-e-'	sa̋t-es	e=vų̋-a
river-GEN.SG	in	cow-NOM.PL-ELIS	sated-NOM.PL	PST=be-IND

4.7.2 The construction consisting of an intransitive verb plus a prepositional phrase, e.g., "he went with his friends," is not used as much in Senjecas as it is in many modern languages. The idea is expressed by a transitive verb and its direct object, e.g., "he accompanied his friends."

Verbs – ką̋tos

Voice – pą̋sa

Voice indicates the relation of the verbal action to the subject.
In the active voice (kipą̋sa) the subject is represented as acting. The same verb may be both transitive and intransitive. There are no deponent verbs.

I close my eyes.

mu-tüa̋lon pa̋xa:

mu=tüa̋l-on	pa̋x-a
my=eye-ACC.PL	close-IND

Tense – te̋na

Tense designates the time of an action as present, past or future. These tenses designate habitual action. The unmarked verb is in the present tense.
- For the past tense, the prefix e- is affixed to the verb.
- For the future tense, the prefix u- is affixed to the verb.

Aspect – nǫ̋a

Aspect defines the temporal flow (or lack thereof) in a given action, event, or state, from the point of view of the speaker. Aspects are coupled with the tenses to indicate the time and the character of an action. These indications are as follows:

4.8.3.1 The perfective aspect (þuxnǫ̋a) designates that an action is complete; the imperfective aspect (álþuxnǫ̋a) designates that an action is incomplete.
- The present imperfective (imte̋na) describes customary or repeated action going on in present time: I eat.
- The past imperfective (feste̋na) describes customary or repeated action that went on in past time: I ate.
- The future imperfective (poste̋na) describes customary or repeated action that will take place in future time: I will eat.
- The present perfective (ímþuxte̋na) describes action begun in the past and completed by or continuing in the present time: I have eaten.
- The past perfective (fésþuxte̋na) describes action begun in the past and completed in the past: I had eaten.
- The future perfective (pósþuxte̋na) describes action that will begin in the future and be completed in or continue into the future: I will have eaten.

4.8.3.2 Other aspects are created with periphrastic constructions.
- 4.8.3.2.1 The adverb níku, at present, with the finite verb is used to form the progressive and continuous aspects (meɱnǫ̋a) which are used to emphasize that the action is occurring at the time in question.

Run for your life!

(tú) güı̨̨̋ȝam éra rę̋se:

t-ú	güı̨̨̋ȝ-am	éra	rę̋s-e
2-VOC.SG	life-ACC.SG	for	run-IMP

"I am running.

níku rę̋sa:

níku	rę̋s-a
at.present	run-IND

- 4.8.3.2.2 The postposition héla, at the edge of, with vų̋a, be, and the supine is used to form the prospective aspect (avnǫ̋a): "about to, going to."

"She is about to fall.

nu fǫ̋lu héla vų̋a:

n-u	fǫ̋l-u	héla	vų̋-a
3-NOM.SG	fall-SUP	about.to	be-IND

- 4.8.3.2.3 The verb gűa, be accustomed to, with the supine is used to form the habitual aspect (šéðnǫ̋a): "used to, would."

"I used to walk home from school.

mu nómþim tundémþis ne̋ðu e-gűa:

m-u	nóm-þim	tundém-þis	ne̋ð-u	e=gű-a
1-NOM.SG	school-ALL	school-ABL	walk-SUP	PST=used.to-IND

- 4.8.3.3.3 The suffix -el- is used to form the frequentative aspect (sęrnǫ̋a): "keep on, continue."

"The baby kept on crying/cried and cried/continued to cry.

bą̋lu e-ɫįge̋la:

bą̋l-u	e=ɫįg<e̋l>-a
baby-NOM.SG	PST=cry<FRQ>IND

- 4.8.3.3.4 The verb de̋usa, stop, with the supine is used to form the terminative aspect (deusnǫ̋a): "stop."

"She stopped smoking yesterday.

nu hesáhvi mų̋xu e-de̋usa:

n-u	hes-áh-vi	mų̋x-u	e=de̋us-a
3-NOM.SG	yester-day-ADV	smoke-SUP	PST=stop-IND

- 4.8.3.3.5 The verb ša̋na, tend, incline, with the supine is used to form the inclinational aspect (šanǫ̋a): "incline, favor, tend."

"I am inclined to grant/in favor of granting their request.

mu núm ı̋gom a̋ȝu süana:

m-u	n-úm	ı̋g-om	a̋ȝ-u	šan-a
1-NOM.SG	3-GEN.PL	request-ACC.SG	grant-SUP	incline-IND

- 4.8.3.3.6 The suffix -e̋ȝ- added to the verb root is used to form the causative aspect (f̣ųðnǫ̋a): "make, have"

"I will make him laugh.

mu num u-ine̋ȝa:

m-u	n-um	u=in<e̋ȝ>a
1s-NOM	3.ACC.SG	FUT=laugh<CAUS>IND

- 4.8.3.3.7 The verb þűka, complete, in the perfect aspect, þyþűka, with the supine is used to form the recent perfect aspect (nevnǫ̋a): "have just..."

"The mayor (has) just died.

rįnę̋ȝu ne̋cu þyþűka:

rįnę̋il-u	ne̋c-u	þy~þűk-a
die-SUP	PRF~complete-IND

- 4.8.3.3.8 The verb tőda, begin, with the supine is used to form the inceptive aspect (toðnǫ̋a): "begin to..."

"The princess began to sing.

į-asűru ga̋ȝu e-tőda:

į=asűr-u	ga̋ȝ-u	e=tőd-a
FEM=prince-NOM.SG	sing-SUP	PST=begin-IND

- 4.8.3.3.9 The verb ɱe̋ca, want, with the supine is used to form the desiderative aspect (ɱesnǫ̋a): "want to...", "would like to...".

"Now the prince wants to sing.

ur-asűru ímu ga̋ȝu ɱe̋ca:

ur=asűr-u	ímu	ga̋ȝ-u	ɱe̋c-a
MASC=prince-NOM.SG	now	sing-SUP	sing-IND

- 4.8.3.3.10 The verb ke̋la, have to, must, with the supine is used to form the obligative aspect (kelnǫ̋a): "have to..."

"I have to go now.

mu ímu a̋tu ke̋la:

m-u	ímu	a̋t-u	ke̋l-a
1-NOM.SG	now	go-SUP	must-IND

- 4.8.3.3.11 The verb vų̋ma, ought, with the supine is used to form the debitive aspect (vųmnǫ̋a): “ought to...”

"I ought to go now too.

mu ímu étu a̋tu vų̋ma:

m-u	ímu	étu	a̋t-u	vų̋m-a
1-NOM.SG	now	too	go-SUP	ought-IND

Mood - ðe̋ra

Mood indicates the attitude of the speaker toward what he is saying. There are four moods in Senjecas.
- 4.8.4.1 The indicative mood (ɱęrðe̋ra) is marked by –a and is used in simple assertions or negations and in questions or exclamations which include or concern such assertions, e.g., nu ɱe̋na, he loves; nu ɱıɱe̋na, he has loved; tu xum ɱe̋na, whom do you love? The negating particle is ne and is postverbal, e.g., nu ɱe̋na ne, he does not love.
- 4.8.4.2 The subjunctive mood (nuvðe̋ra) is marked by -o and is used in statements of uncertainty and in those contrary-to-fact. The negating particle is mę. It is used in some subordinate clauses.
- 4.8.4.3 The imperative mood (ęvðe̋ra) is marked by -e and is used to express commands and prohibitions, exhortations and entreaties. The negating particle is me.
- 4.8.4.4 The relative mood (ȝeþðe̋ra) is marked by -i and is used in various relative clauses.

Supine – kąþfę̋to

As there are no infinitives or gerunds in Senjecas, a form of the verb in -u is used in their place. This form is called the supine.

"I can swim.

mu še̋mu mą̋ka:

4.8.5.1 A modifying adverb will precede the supine.

"I can swim well.

mu súvi süe̋mu mą̋ka:

4.8.5.2 The finite dependent verb may depend on adjectives corresponding in meaning to verbs which take an object supine, e.g., ability, fitness, desire, willingness.

"Wanting to go, he sought permission.

a̋tu ɱe̋cantu. nu dőram e-nę̋þa:

a̋t-u	ɱe̋c-a-nt-u	n-u	dőr	am	e=nę̋þ-a
go-SUP	wish-IND-AP-NOM.SG	3-NOM.SG	permission-ACC.SG	PST=seek-IND

4.8.5.3 Any adjective, adverb, noun or verb may take a dependent supine to limit its meaning

This plant is useful for healing.

i-mų̋lo ȝę̋ku ne̋uðro e̋sa:

i=mų̋l-o	ȝę̋k-u	ne̋uðr-o	e̋s	a
this=plant-NOM.SG	heal-SUP	useful-NOM.SG	be-IND

The scene was a wonder to behold.

na̋kaþo na̋ku dı̋ƶo e-e̋sa

na̋k-a-þ-o	na̋k-u	dı̋ƶ-o	e=e̋s-a
see-IND-PP-NOM.SG	see-SUP	wonder-NOM.SG	PST=be-IND

4.8.5.4 The supine is used where other languages would use the gerund.

Bargaining with the merchant is fun.

k̬apűs þǫ́sa lı̋ku se̋bo vų̋a:

k̬ap-űs	þǫ́sa	lı̋k-u	se̋b-o	vų̋-a
merchant-GEN.SG	against	bargain-SUP	sun-NOM.SG	be-IND

My wife and I find riding horses very relaxing.

mu-güe̋nusküe muküe lábu ca̋lantu mőren re̋iðu dę̋sa:

mu=güe̋n-u=küe	m-u=küe	lábu	ca̋l-a-nt-u	mőr-en	re̋ið-u	dę̋s-a
my=wife-NOM.SG=and	1s-NOM=and	very	relax-IND-AP-NOM.SG	horse-ACC.PL	ride-SUP	find-IND

4.8.5.5 The infinitive as the subject of a verb is translated by the supine.

To swim (swimming) is healthy.

süe̋mu sa̋nu e̋sa:

še̋m-u	sa̋n-u	e̋s-a
swim-SUP	healthy-NOM.SG	be-IND

Participles – ką́þfęþga̋nos

4.8.6.1 The participle is a verbal adjective, in function partaking of the nature of verb and adjective. There are two participles in Senjecas, the agent and the patient. Each of these occurs in all the moods.
- 4.8.6.1.1 The agent participle is formed by suffixing -nti to the mood root. The agent participle describes that which it modifies as acting, e.g., ɱe̋nanti, loving, as in ɱe̋nantu tą̋ta, loving father.
- 4.8.6.1.2 The patient participle is formed by suffixing -þi to the mood root. The patient participle describes that which it modifies as being acted upon, e.g., ɱe̋naþi, beloved, as in ɱe̋naþu tą̋ta, beloved father.
4.8.6.2 As with any adjective, participles may take the -u ending and function as nouns, e.g., ɱe̋nantu, lover; ɱe̋naþu, beloved. It is then equivalent to "he who, they who, that which, etc.," in English.

He who is speaking is my father.

ȝe̋kantu mu-tą̋ta e̋sa:

ȝe̋k-a-nt-u	mu=tą̋t-a	e̋s-a
speak-IND-AP-NOM.SG	my=father-NOM.SG	be-IND

4.8.6.3 As an adjective, the participle may be modified by an adverb, e.g., súvi ɱe̋naþu tą̋ta, well-beloved father.

4.8.6.4 As a verb, the participle may take a direct object

Seeing the approaching storm, the girl went back into the house.

ȝővanto ðų̋om na̋kantu. pÿa̋þu ɱę̋som éna e-ke̋ra:

ȝőv-a-nto	ðų̋-om	na̋k-a-ntu	pa̋ḷ-u	ɱę̋s-om	éna	e=ke̋r-a
approach-IND-AP	storm-ACC.SG	see-IND-AP	house-ACC.SG	into	PST=return-IND

Absolute Constructions – ɱı̨̋o ȝe̋xtos

Adverbial clauses may be translated by absolute constructions. Absolute constructions consist of a noun or pronoun and a participle which are not grammatically connected with the main clause. The noun or pronoun may not refer to the subject of the sentence.

4.8.7.1 When the absolute construction describes a non-motion event, the construction is in the genitive case.

When he was prince, we were happy.

nús asurűs e-vųantűs. ɱus ka̋itus e-vų̋a.

n-ús	asur-űs	e=vų-a-nt-űs	ɱ-us	ka̋it-us	e=vų̋-a
3-GEN.SG	prince-GEN.SG	PST=be-IND-PP-GEN.SG	1p-NOM	happy-NOM.SG	PST=be-IND

While they are eating, the chorus is singing.

núm edantűm. gą̋ilus gą̋ȝa:

n-úm	ed-a-nt-űm	gą̋il-us	gą̋ȝ-a
3-GEN.PL	eat-IND-AP-GEN.PL	singer-NOM.PL	sing-IND

4.8.7.2 When the absolute construction describes an event involving motion, the construction is in the accusative case.

After the army had crossed the bridge, the citizens fled.

őmum þőlom tıta̋rantum. e̋nrus e-ǫ̋ða:

őm-um	þől-om	tı~ta̋r-a-nt-um	e̋nr-us	e=ǫ̋ð-a
army-ACC.SG	bridge-ACC.SG	PRF~cross-IND-AP-ACC.SG	citizen-NOM.PL	flee-IND

Before the army neared the bridge, the citizens fled.

őmum þőlom e-ȝőbantum. e̋nrus e-ǫ̋ða:

őm-um	þől—om	e=ȝőb-a-nt-um	e̋nr-us	e=ǫ̋ð-a
army-ACC.SG	bridge-ACC.SG	PST=approach-IND-AP-ACC.SG	citizen-NOM.PL	PST=flee-IND

Subordinate Clauses – fasɱãiþo

A subordinate clause does not express a complete thought and is, therefore, attached to an independent clause. Although a subordinate clause contains a subject and a predicate, it sounds incomplete when standing alone. Subordinate clauses that modify substantives are placed before the substantive. Subordinate clauses that modify verbs are placed before the verb or before the direct object, if there is one. Senjecan orthography requires that a hyphen be used to separate the subordinate clause from the main clause. There is no distinction made in Senjecas between restrictive and non-restrictive clauses.

4.8.8.1 Adverbial clauses with the indicative mood – ɱę̋ro kąþga̋no fasɱa̋iþos
- 4.8.8.1.1 Time clauses indicate when something happens by referring to a period of time or to another event. They are introduced by the conjunctions when, before, after, since, while, as, as long as, until, till, hardly, scarcely, and no sooner.

Her dog died when she was young.

nu-ną̋ȝe e-ne̋ca. méti be̋ku e-e̋sa:

nu=ną̋ȝ-e	e=ne̋c-a	méti	be̋k-u	e=e̋s-a
her=dog-NOM.SG	PST=die-IND	when	young-NOM.SG	PST=be-IND

- 4.8.8.1.2. Reason clauses indicate the reason for something. They are introduced by the conjunctions because, since, as, for, now that, considering that, and given that.

She can’t stay angry, because she loves him.

nu ge̋gu süe̋du fę̋a. hi þum ɱe̋na:

n-u	ge̋g-u	süe̋d-u	fę̋-a	hi	n-u	þ-um	ɱe̋n-a
3-NOM.SG	angry-NOM.SG	remain-SUP	unable-IND	because	4-ACC.SG	love-IND

- 4.8.8.1.3 Result clauses indicate the result of some action. They are introduced by the conjunctions that, so that, and with the result that.

My leg hurts so much that I cannot walk.

la̋ko süo mę́vi de̋ba. tą́di ne̋ðu fę̋a:

la̋k-o	süo	mę́-vi	de̋ba	tą́di	ne̋ð-u	fę̋-a
leg-NOM.SG	so	much-ADV	so.that	walk-SUP	unable-IND	hurt-IND

He opened the window so roughly that it broke.

nu süo féðvi tűngom e-tüı̋va. tą́di þo e-ȝa̋fa:

n-u	süo	féð-vi	tűng-om	e=tüı̋v-a	tą́di	ólno	e=ȝa̋f-a
3-NOM.SG	so	force-ADV	window-ACC.SG	PST=open-IND	so.that	4-NOM.SG	PST=break-IND

- 4.8.8.1.4 Concessive clauses indicate that one statement contrasts with another. They are introduced by the conjunctions although, (even) though, and while.

We will leave, even though it is raining.

ɱus u-vı̋da—sámi sų̋ma:

ɱ-us	u=vı̋d-a	sámi	sų̋m-a
1p-NOM	FUT=leave-IND	even.though	rain-IND

- 4.8.8.1.5 Clauses of place indicate the location or position of something. They are introduced by the adverbs that answer the question “where?”: anywhere, everywhere, etc.

The child is happy where he is.

cı̋cu ka̋itu vų̋a. vái vų̋a:

cı̋c-u	vái	vų̋-a	ka̋it-u	vų̋-a
child-NOM.SG	where	be-IND	happy-NOM.SG.	be-IND

- 4.8.8.1.6 Clauses of manner indicate someone's behaviour or the way something is done. They are introduced by the conjunctions as, like, and the way.

The soldiers carried out the plan as the general had ordered.

sőþlus pę̋kam e-þűka. épi soþvę̋lu e-ę̋va:

sőþl-us	pę̋k-am	e=þűk-a	mǫ́di	soþvę̋l-u	e=ę̋v-a
soldier-NOM.PL	as	general-NOM.SG	PST=PRF~order-IND	plan-ACC.SG	PST=carry.out-IND

4.8.8.2 Adverbial clauses with the subjunctive mood – fa̋so kąþga̋no fasɱa̋iþos
- 4.8.8.2.1 Conditional clauses indicate a possible or counterfactual situation and its consequences. They are introduced by the words if, unless, and lest. The verb in conditional clauses is in the subjunctive mood.

If it rains tomorrow, we won’t go.

ɱus u-a̋ta ne. ébi cúɱvi sų̋ɱo:

ɱ-us	ébi	cúɱ-vi	sų̋ɱ-o	u=a̋t-a	ne
1p-NOM	if	tomorrow-ADV	rain-SBJ	FUT=go-IND	not

- 4.8.8.2.2 Clauses of purpose indicate the purpose of an action. They are introduced by the words so that and in order that.

He steadied the horse so that she could mount.

ur-nu mőrem e-pa̋ga. tą́d' į-þu pų̋nu mą̋ᵹo:

ur=n-u	mőr-em	e=pa̋g-a	tą́d-'	į=þ-u	pų̋n-u	mą̋ᵹ-o
MASC=3-NOM.SG	horse-ACC.SG	PST=steady-IND	so.that	FEM=4.NOM.SG	mount-SUP	be.able-SBJ

Clauses of purpose may not be deranked in Senjecas. It is possible to say, “He steadied the horse so that he could mount,” but it is impossible to say, “He steadied the horse in order to mount.”

4.8.8.3 Noun clauses with the relative mood – ȝe̋to fę̋to fasɱa̋iþos
A noun clause can be used like a noun. It can be a subject, predicate nominative, direct object, appositive, indirect object, or the object of a preposition. Some of the relative conjunctions, adverbs, and pronouns that introduce noun clauses are that, whether, who, whom, why, what, how, when, whoever, whomever, and where.

Noun clauses are introduced by the relative particle ȝo, that. When this relative particle is used, then the verb is in the relative mood (-i). The relative clause is rephrased with a personal pronoun taking the place of the relative word.

- 4.8.8.3.1 Subject

What you said displeases me.

tei tu nom e-tę̋i—mum sų̋ra:

tei	t-u	n-om	e=tę̋-i	m-um	sų̋r-a:
that	2-NOM.SG	PST=say-REL	1s-ACC	displease-IND

- 4.8.8.3.2 When the noun clause functions as a predicate nominative the noun clause precedes the main clause.

The good news is that everyone is still here.

tei sőlu éstu íðu vų̋i—vą̋do tę̋o e̋sa:

tei	sől-u	éstu	íðu	vų̋-i	vą̋do-Ø	tę̋-o	e̋s-a
that	everyone-NOM.SG	still	here	be-REL	good-ABS	news-NOM.SG	be-IND

- 4.8.8.3.3 Direct Object

I know what you said.

mu—tei tu nom e-tę̋i—są̋ra:

m-u	tei	t-u	n-om	e=tę̋-i	są̋r-a
1s-NOM	that	2s-NOM	3-ACC.SG	PST=say-REL	know-IND

I know why you said it.

mu są̋ra—tei fúsi tu nom e-tę̋i:

m-u	są̋r-a	tei	fúsi	t-u	n-om	e=tę̋-i
1s-NOM	know-IND	that	why	2s-NOM	3-ACC.SG	PST=say-REL

- 4.8.8.3.4 Object of a preposition

He will give this to whoever arrives first.

nu—ȝo k̬enús o sémtu tőpi—som u-dǫ̋a:

n-u	tei	k̬en-ús	o	sémt-u	tőp-i	s-om	u=dǫ̋-a
3-NOM.SGthat	whoever-GEN.SG	to	first-ADV	arrive-REL	this-ACC.SG	FUT=give-IND

4.8.8.4 Noun clauses with the subjunctive mood – fa̋so fę̋to fasɱa̋iþos
- 4.8.8.4.1 Clauses of fearing

I (feared) was afraid (that) this would happen.

mu—tei so mǫ̋do— e-ną̋a:

m-u	tei	s-o	mǫ̋d-o	e=ną̋-a
1s-NOM	that	this-NOM.SG	happen-SUBJ	PST=fear-IND

I (feared) was afraid (that) that had happened.

mu—tei no e-mymǫ̋do—e-ną̋a:

m-u	tei	n-o	e=my~mǫ̋d-o	e=ną̋-a
1s-NOM	PST=fear-IND	that	that-NOM.SG	PST=PRF~happen-SUBJ

- 4.8.8.4.2 Clauses of hoping

I hope (that) he will come for a visit.

mu—tei nu ᵹőstam tą́da u-güe̋mo—ı̋ca:

m-u	tei	n-u	ᵹőst-am	tą́da	u=güe̋m-o	ı̋c-a
1-NOM.SG	that	visit-ACC.SG	for	FUT=come-SUBJ	hope-IND

- 4.8.8.4.3 Clauses of desiring

He wants his son to be strong.

nu—ȝo sų̋nu ɱa̋lu e̋so—ɱe̋ca:

n-u	tei	sų̋n-u	ɱa̋l-u	e̋s-o	ɱe̋c-a
3-NOM.SG	that	son-NOM.SG	strong-NOM.SG	be-SBJ	want-IND

4.8.8.5 Adjectival (Relative) Clauses – ȝe̋to gansa̋ɱo fasɱa̋iþos

Adjectival clauses function as adjectives, answering questions such as "what kind?", "how many?" or "which one?". They are introduced by the complementizer ȝo and the verb is in the indicative mood. Any relative adverbs (when, where, why) or pronouns (who, whom, whose, that, which) are replaced by the corresponding non-relative adverb or pronoun. Like all adjectives they precede the noun they describe.

This is the ball (that/which) I was bouncing.

so—tei mu som e-ı̋ta—ge̋lo e̋sa:

s-o	tei	m-u	s-om	e=ı̋t-a	ge̋l-o	e̋s-a
this-NOM.SG	1-NOM.SG	3-ACC.SG	PST=bounce- IND	ball-NOM.SG	be-IND

That is the house where I grew up.

no—tei mu tóru e-ȝe̋nda—ɱę̋so e̋sa:

n-o	tei	m-u	tóru	e=ȝe̋nd-a	ɱę̋s-o	e̋s-a
that-NOM.SG	that	1s-NOM	PST=grow.up-IND	house-NOM.SG	be-IND

He is the man whose horse died.

nu—tei nu-mőre e-ne̋ca—ɱı̋ru e̋sa:

n-u	tei	nu-mőr-'e	e-ne̋c-a	ɱı̋r-u	e̋s-a
3-NOM.SG	that	his-horse-NOM.SG-ELIS	PST=die-IND	man-NOM.SG	be-IND

4.8.8.6 Conditional clauses – kÿa̋ro fasɱa̋iþos
- 4.8.8.6.1 Conditional clauses (protasis) are introduced by the conjunction ébi and (with one exception) have their verb in the subjunctive mood. The main clause (apodosis) is introduced by the conjunction toą́ri and is in the subjunctive mood. In these clauses, the protasis precedes the apodosis. A dash is used to separate the two clauses.

- 4.8.8.6.2 Future More-Vivid sentences express future results of probable or expected conditions. The verb in the apodosis is in the future indicative because it has not happened yet.

If it rains, (then) the roads will be wet.

ébi sų̋ɱo—toą́ri ɱe̋ȝos mą̋nos u-vų̋a:

ébi	sų̋ɱ-o	toą́ri	ɱe̋ȝ-os	mą̋n-os	u=vų̋-a
if	rain-SUBJ	then	road-NOM.PL	wet-NOM.PL	FUT=be-IND

- 4.8.8.6.3 Future Less-Vivid sentences express future results for conditions that are considered improbable. In this case, the main verb is also in the subjunctive mood.

If I had enough money, I would buy a boat.

ébi mu ma̋to pı̨̋nom e-űdo—toą́ri ną̋ɱom sa̋o:

ébi	m-u	ma̋to-Ø	dőþ-om	e=űd-o	toą́ri	ną̋ɱ-om	sa̋-o
if	1s-NOM	enough-ABS	money-ACC.SG	PST=have-SBJ	then	boat-ACC.SG	buy-SBJ

- 4.8.8.6.4 Contrafactual sentences (present and past mutatis mutandis) express the results of untrue conditions. Both verbs are in the subjunctive mood.

If I were king (and I'm not), you would be queen.

ébi m' ur-rę̋ᵹu vų̋o—toą́ri tu į-rę̋ᵹu vų̋o:

ébi	m-'	ur=rę̋ᵹ-u	vų̋-o	toą́ri	t-u	į=rę̋ᵹ-u	vų̋-o
if	1s-ELIS	MASC=king-NOM.SG	be-SBJ	then	2s-NOM	FEM=king-NOM.SG	be-SBJ

If I had been king (and I wasn't), you would have been queen.

ébi m’ ur-rę̋ᵹu e-vyvų̋o—toą́ri tu į-rę̋ᵹu vyvų̋o:

ébi	m-’	ur=rę̋ᵹ-u	e-vy~vų̋-o	toą́ri	t-u	į=rę̋ᵹ-u	vy~vų̋-o
if	1s-ELIS	MASC=king-NOM.SG	PST=PRF~be-SBJ	then	2s-NOM	FEM=king-NOM.SG	PRF~be-SBJ

- 4.8.8.6.5 Present General sentences are an exception. Their verbs are in the indicative mood for they describe conditions that are true.

If I am king (and I am), then you are queen.

ébi ur-rę̋ᵹu vų̋a—toą́ri tu į-rę̋ᵹu vų̋a:

ébi	ur=rę̋ᵹ-u	vų̋-a	toą́ri	t-u	į=rę̋ᵹ-u	vų̋-a:
if	MASC=king-NOM.SG	be-IND	then	2s-NOM	FEM=king-NOM.SG	be-IND

- 4.8.8.6.6 In other situations, the verb in the protasis is in the subjunctive mood.

If she is here now, I am glad.

ébi nu ímu íðu vų̋o—toą́ri mu rą̋du vų̋a.

ébi	n-u	ímu	íðu	vų̋-o	toą́ri	m-u	rą̋d-u	vų̋-a.
if	3-NOM.SG	now	here	be-SBJ	then	1s-NOM	glad-NOM.SG	be-IND

4.8.8.7 Independent Clauses – süe̋vo fa̋so fasɱa̋iþos
- 4.8.8.7.1 Independent clauses introduced by the postposition ša, but for.

But for the lightning we would/might not have seen the enemy.

hele̋' süa—ɱus nÿe̋rtum nına̋ko mę:

hel-e̋-'	süa	ɱ-us	nÿe̋rt-um	nı~na̋k-o	mę:
lightning-GEN.SG-ELIS	but.for	1p-NOM	enemy-ACC.SG	PRF~see-SBJ	not

- 4.8.8.7.2 To make a wish in an independent clause.

May you be happy!

(tú) ka̋itu e̋so:

t-ú	ka̋it-u	e̋s-o:
2s-VOC	happy-NOM.SG	be-SBJ

- 4.8.8.7.3 To make a polite request, instead of adding "please" to a command. This construction is always used with superiors.

Sit down!

tú se̋de

t-ú	se̋d-e
2s-VOC	sit-IMP

Please/Do sit down.

tú se̋do

t-ú	se̋d-o
2s-VOC	sit-SBJ

Conjunctions – ᵹeðsa̋ɱos

A conjunction is a word or a phrase that connects two words, sentences, phrases, or clauses together. It is an invariable particle that, with but few exceptions, ends in –i.

4.9.1 A coordinating conjunction (pa̋ro ᵹeðsa̋ɱo) joins two or more items of equal syntactic importance, such as words, main clauses, or sentences. The two equal clauses or sentences are separated by a k̬ilbőto. A list of coordinating conjunctions can be found in Appendix C.

The doctor arrived but it was too late.

lę̋gu e-tőpa. ésti kétu xa̋lo e-e̋sa:

lę̋g-u	e=tőp-a	ésti	kétu	xa̋l-o	e=e̋s-a
doctor-NOM.SG	PST=arrive-IND	but	too	late-NOM.SG	PST=be-IND

4.9.2 Sentences joined by "and" are juxtaposed without the use of a co-ordinating conjunction. The subject, if the same, need not be repeated.

I wrote a story and sold it.

mu ɫőmom e-ȝa̋ra: nom e-fą̋ra:

m-u	ɫőm-om	e=ȝa̋r-a	n-om	e=fą̋r-a
1s-NOM	story-ACC.SG	PST=write-IND	3-ACC.SG	PST=sell-IND

4.9.3 Correlative conjunctions (ȝémᵹeðsa̋ɱo) work in pairs to join words and groups of words of equal weight in a sentence. There are six different pairs of correlative conjunctions which can be found in Appendix C.

Both the soldiers and the nobles will come to the dance.

vǫ̋u sőþlus vǫ̋u kǫ̋vus me̋bom do u-güe̋ma:

vǫ̋u-Ø	sőþl-us	vǫ̋u-Ø	kǫ̋v-us	me̋b-om	do	u=güe̋m-a
both-ABS	soldier-NOM.PL	both-ABS	noble-NOM.PL	dance-ACC.SG	to	FUT=come-IND

4.9.4 The conjunction or can be translated in several ways.
- When the conjunction or indicates an alternative, it is translated by the conjunction ɱe attached as a postclitic to the members of the series.

I will bring an apple, (or) a pear, or a peach.

mu abe̋lomɱe pı̋somɱe ṭe̋nomɱe u-tőᵹa:

m-u	abe̋l-om=ɱe	pı̋s-om=ɱe	ṭe̋n-om=ɱe	u=tőᵹ-a
1s-NOM	apple-ACC.SG=or	pear-ACC.SG=or	peach-ACC.SG=or	FUT=bring-IND

- If there are only two alternatives, the preceding can be translated using either…or.

I will bring either an apple or a pear.

mu abe̋lomɱe pı̋somɱe u-tőᵹa:

m-u	abe̋l-om=ɱe	pı̋s-om=ɱe	u=tőᵹ-a
1s-NOM	apple-ACC.SG=or	pear-ACC.SG=or	FUT=bring-IND

- When or indicates a synonymous or equivalent expression, it is translated by the adjective dı̋lanto, “meaning”.

He suffers from hepatitis, or a liver disease.

nu ȝekycę̋ɱam dĩlanto ȝekyda̋mom da̋ma:

n-u	ȝekycę̋ɱ-am	dĩl-a-nt-o	ȝekyda̋m-om	da̋ma
3-NOM.SG	hepatitis-ACC.SG	mean-IND-AP-ATT	liver.disease-ACC.SG	suffer.from-IND

- When or indicates uncertainty or indefiniteness, it is translated by the adverb máᵹvi, “maybe”.

He owns two or/maybe three horses.

nu d̬ő máᵹvi tı̋r mőren űða:

n-u	d̬ő	máᵹvi	tı̋r	mőr-en	űð-a
3-NOM.SG	two	maybe	three	horse-ACC.PL	own-IND

4.9.5 A subordinating conjunction (fa̋so qeðsa̋ɱo) joins an independent and a dependent clause. The two clauses are separated by a sólpuþlɛbőto. A list of subordinating conjunctions may be found in Appendix C.

Her dog died when she was young.

nús ną̋ȝ' e-ne̋ca—méti be̋ku e-e̋sa:

n-ús	ną̋ȝ-e	e=ne̋c-a	méti	be̋k-u	e=e̋s-a
3-GEN.ST	dog-NOM.SG	PST=die-IND	when	young-NOM.SG	PST=be-IND

Direct Quotations – sę̋iða f̣unvą̋as

Direct quotations are treated as independent sentences, the quotation following the verb of saying. The quotative particle (QUOT) ɱa(r) is placed before and after the quoted words. The form ɱar is used if followed by a word beginning with a vowel and at the end of the quotation.

I said, "I will go to the store.

mu e-tę̋a: ɱa mu sade̋mom do u-a̋ta ɱar:

m-u	e=tę̋-a	ɱa	m-u	sade̋m-om	do	u=a̋t-a	ɱar
1s-NOM	PST=say-IND	QUOT	1s-NOM	store-NOM.SG	to	FUT=go-IND	QUOT

I said, "The nightingale is sick.

mu e-tę̋a: ɱar aɱę̋de da̋me vų̋a ɱar:

m=u	e=tę̋-a	ɱar	aɱę̋d-e	da̋m-e	vų̋-a	ɱar
1s-NOM	PST=say-IND	QUOT	nightingale-NOM.SG	sick-NOM.SG.	be-IND	QUOT

I asked, "Will you go to the store?

mu e-me̋ta: ɱa tu sade̋mom do u-a̋tame ɱar:

m-u	e=me̋t-a	ɱa	t-u	sade̋m-om	do	u=a̋t-a=me	ɱar
1s-NOM	PST=ask-IND	QUOT	2s-NOM	store-ACC.SG	to	FUT=go-IND=Q	QUOT

Indirect Speech – nsę̋iða ȝe̋ka

In indirect speech the exact words of someone are reported by someone else. The verb in the main clause is a verb of speaking (speak, say, tell, report, answer, reply, respond), of knowing (know, understand, realize), or of perceiving (hear, feel, sense). The reported words are placed after the verb with the reported verb as a supine and its subject in the accusative case. The tense of the reported verb is the same as the verb in the direct speech.

He said, "It is raining hard." nu e-tę̋a ɱa fę́ðvi sų̋ɱa ɱar: He said (that) it was raining hard. nu e-tę̋a fę́ðvi sų̋ɱu: He said, "It was raining hard." nu e-tę̋a ɱa fę́ðvi e-sų̋ɱa ɱar: He said (that) it was raining hard. nu e-tę̋a fę́ðvi e-sų̋ɱu: He said, "I will go to the house." nu e-tę̋a ɱa mu ɱę̋som do u-a̋ta ɱar: He said (that) he would go to the house. nu e-tę̋a num ɱę̋som do u-a̋tu:

Interrogative Sentences – méþɱo ševɱa̋iþos

4.12.1 A lexically marked question is one that contains an interrogative pronoun, pronominal adjective or adverb. The verb in this type of question does not take the interrogative postclitic -me. Note that an interrogative word is placed in the position of its part of speech, which is not necessarily sentence initial.

Who is coming across the field?

xu lőukom tára güe̋ma:

x-u	lőuk-om	tára	güe̋m-a
who-NOM.SG	field-ACC.SG xu lőukom tára ǧe̋ma	across	come-IND

When will the cobbler return those tools?

þąvta̋ɱlu mét' i-xe̋mon u-ke̋ra:

þąvta̋ɱl-u	méti	i=xe̋m-on	u=ke̋r-a
cobbler-NOM.SG	when	this=tool-ACC.PL	FUT=return-IND

4.12.2 It is possible for a lexically marked sentence to contain two or more interrogative words.

Who will help us and when (will he)?

xu méti ɱun u-rę̋ga:

x-u	méti	ɱ-un	u=rę̋g-a
who-NOM.SG	when	1p-ACC	FUT=help-IND

4.12.3 The interrogative suffix -me, added to the modal base of the verb, is used to mark questions that are not marked lexically. It implies nothing as to the answer expected. There is no alteration of the tones.

Do you drink wine?

tu ɱőinom pǫ̋ȝame:

t-u	ɱőin-om	pǫ̋ȝ-a=me
2s-NOM	wine-ACC.ST	drink-IND=Q

4.12.4 In answering this type of question, "yes" and "no" are not used. Instead, the verb is repeated without a pronoun subject.

Yes, I do. pǫ̋ȝa: No, I don't. pǫ̋ȝa ne:

4.12.5 If an affirmative answer is expected, an affirmative statement is made and is followed by the phrase ċőkame, agree-Q.

You are drinking wine, aren't you (don’t you agree)? tu ɱe̋inom pǫ̋ȝa. cÿőxame:

The answer is either cÿőka, "agree," or cÿőka ne, "not agree."

4.12.6 If a negative answer is expected, a negative statement is made and is followed by the phrase, cÿőkame, "agree-Q".

You are not drinking wine, are you (don’t you agree)? tu ɱe̋inom pǫ̋ȝa ne. cÿőkame:

The answer is either cÿőka, "agree," or cÿőka ne, "not agree".