Cosmopolitan Gold languages

Khulls has a very unusual phonology that speakers of surrounding languages say makes Khulls sound "powerful". Even 4000 years on, it is still spoken in unchanged form by various communities as a second language, and by some animals as a first language. Few of the descendants maintain the same feel as the original, but some are unique and powerful in other weays. Common sound changes in languages descended from Khulls:

Consonants

• Loss of /g/ (a voiced velar fricative, IPA is /ɣ/). This change is very common even in unrelated branches of the family. Usuaully, the change is /g/ > /ʕ/ > /0/, meaning that it takes any preexisting /ʕ/ with it. However, [ʕ] can be retained allophonically as an inter-syllabic separator, and even go on to become a phoneme again later on, whereas [g] never is.

• Loss of /p/ and its relatives, often paired with loss of /g/ above wherein the /g/ > /0/ shift happens first and creates diphthongs, and the /p/ > /0/ shift happens later and creates vowel sequences. Often, /p/ survives as the glottal stop [ʔ], but is not considered a phoneme because it can only occur intervocalically. This shift is commonest in northern dialects which were always deficient in /ṗ/, meaning that the shift was of /p/ > /ṗ/ > /ʔ/. Here, /ṗ/ is a plain unaspirated bilabial stop which was identified as glottalized due to lack of a contrast. This shift often also changes /b/ > /ʕ/ > /0/.

• Shift of /p/ and its relatives to /f/. Often the shift is /p pʷ ṗ ṗʷ b bʷ/ > /f fʷ f fʷ v vʷ/, where the /fʷ vʷ/ are identified with the rare preexisting /hʷ ʕʷ/ phonemes. Often, the new phonemes are shifted to glottal fricatives, merging with the mostly rare /h ʕ hʷ ʕʷ/. This shift is often found in "P-Khulls" languages which restore /p b/ by shifts from /kʷ ḳʷ ġʷ/.

• Shift of labialized consonants to true bilabials and labiodentals. This shift is found even in languages that have a pure intact labial series inherited from Khulls. Thus, for example, in Ogili, /b bʷ ṗ ṗʷ ḳʷ ġʷ gʷ/ all merge as /b/. Like Poswobs they "refused to balance" increasing labials with increasing anything else.

• Shift of ejective consonants to voiced stops, along the path of them first changing to plain voiceless stops. Thus /ḳ/ > /kʕ/ > /ġ/. Here the "ʕ" is a makeshift symbol that shows blocking of aspiration, since in all languages voiceless stops are assumed aspirated by default.

• Merger of all labialized consonants with the corresponding plain consonants, usually with some change to the surrounding vowels. In Ogili, this included syllable-final consonants; i.e. /əpʷ/ became /o/. Most of the time, however, syllable-final labialized consonants are smoothed out to plain ones without affecting the preceding vowel, since there was almost no contrast to be made here (i.e. there were many words ending in /pʷ/ but very few ending in /p/).

• Palatalization of plain velar consonants, usually quickly followed by a shift of labiovelars to plain velars. In Moonshine, there were two palatalizations of velars, a "shallow" one which took place early and occurred in only a few environments, and a much later "deep" one which was unconditional. At first, the labiovelars remained in place, meaning Moonshine had /kʲ kʷ/ without /k/. However, even then, [k] occurred as an allophone of /h/ because the deep palatalization did not affect fricatives. It did affect affricates, however: /kh/ > /č/. Note that palatalizations in Khul languages mostly affect dorsal consonants, not coronals, but that /j/ is more likely to affect coronals than /i/ is.

• Loss of all syllable-final consonants, with or without changes of tone for the preceding vowel. Ogili lost all final consonants and did not change these tones, as the tones had been shuffled around considerably leading up to this change, meaning that there was little information lost.

Vowels

• Change to a vertical vowel inventory. The parent language vowel setup was /a e i o u/, but with /e/ and /u/ rarer than the others. Thus must words can be spelled with just the three vowels /a i o/. In many unrelated child languages, the vowel inventory compresses itself to a vertical one: /a ɜ ɨ/. Sometimes, the five vowels are changed using the rule /a e i o u/ > /a jɜ ɨ ɜ ʷɨ/, usually unconditionally. This is then padded out by squeezing the preexisting labialized consonants, thus meaning that all vowels can be pre-labialized, and the preexisting /j/+vowel sequences. However this leaves a gap at */ja/. Most daughter languages lose the /j/+vowel sequences entirely and leave labialization as the only contrast.

• Moonshine takes the unusual initiative of compressing downwards instead, leaving stressed vowels mostly alone but changing unstressed ones (and some stressed ones) according to the rule /a e i o u/ > /a a i a u/. This is partly due to the influence of Bābākiam loanwords and their much greater use of /u/, making the early Moonshine vowel system somewhat more symmetrical. Even so, a huge number of words had /o/ and were merged with /a/ even, in most cases, in stressed syllables. Note that Moonshine broke off from the other languages about 1000 years earlier, and thus still had a full vowel inventory of /a e i o u ja je ji jo ju/, so there was not as much imbalance. On the other hand, Moonshine /e/ was even rarer than in the oither languages, because the shifts of /ja je jo/ > /e/ did not happen here.

• /ă ĭ ŏ/ > /a i u/, but /à ì ò/ > /ə e o/ or something similar. Found only in the far East, where tonelessness languages surrounded the Khulls speakers.

Tones

• Simple loss of all tones.

• Merger of the low and mid tones. Very common.

• Change of the pharyngealized tone into a plain low tone. Nearly universal.

• Merger of the ā and á tones. Happened already in Khulls itself except for the sandhi effects on surrounding vowels.