Phonology
Consonants
|
|
Labial
|
Labiodental
|
Dental ~ Alveolar
|
Palatalized dental ~ Alveolar
|
Postalveolars
|
Palatal
|
Velar
|
| Nasals
|
m
|
|
n
|
|
|
|
ŋ
|
| Plosive
|
p pʰ b
|
|
t tʰ d
|
|
|
|
k kʰ g
|
| Affricates
|
|
|
t͡s t͡sʰ d͡z
|
t͡sʲ t͡sʲʰ d͡zʲ
|
t͡ʃ t͡ʃʰ d͡ʒ
|
|
|
| Fricatives
|
|
|
s z
|
sʲ zʲ
|
ʃ ʒ
|
|
x ɣ
|
| Trills
|
|
|
r
|
rʲ
|
|
|
|
| Lateral approximants
|
|
|
l
|
lʲ
|
|
|
|
| Approximants
|
|
ʋ
|
|
|
|
j
|
|
Spelling
/p t tʲ k/ [p t tj k]
/pʰ tʰ tʲʰ kʰ/ [ph th thj kh]
/b d dʲ g/ [b d dj g]
/t͡s t͡sʲ t͡ʃ/ [c cj č]
/t͡sʰ t͡sʲʰ t͡ʃʰ/ [ch chj čh]
/d͡z d͡zʲ d͡ʒ/ [dz dzj dž]
/s sʲ ʃ x/ [s sj š h]
/z zʲ ʒ ɣ/ [z zj ž x]
/m n nʲ ŋ/ [m n nj ŋ]
/r rʲ l lʲ/ [r rj l lj]
/ʋ j/ [v j]
Vowels
|
|
Front
|
Central
|
Back
|
| Short
|
Long
|
Short
|
Long
|
Short
|
Long
|
| Close
|
|
iː yː
|
|
|
|
uː
|
| Near close
|
ɪ ʏ
|
|
|
|
ʊ
|
|
| Close-Mid
|
|
eː
|
|
|
|
oː
|
| Open-Mid
|
ɛ
|
|
|
|
ɔ
|
|
| Open
|
|
|
ä
|
äː
|
|
|
Spelling
/ɪ ʏ ʊ/ [i y u]
/ɛ ɔ/ [e o]
/ä/ [á]
/iː yː uː/ [ī ȳ ū]
/eː oː/ [ē ō]
/ɑː/ [ā]
Phonotactics
(C)(C)V(ː)(R)(C)
Accent
- penultimate primary acute accent
- ultimate secondary gravis accent
Grammar
Nouns
Gender and number
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| Animate
|
Masculine
|
-a
|
mana
|
man
|
-ē
|
manē
|
men
|
| Feminine
|
-i
|
kōni
|
woman
|
-in
|
kōnī
|
women
|
| Inanimate
|
-u
|
hakmu
|
stone
|
-ȳ
|
hakmȳ
|
stones
|
Declension
| Nominative
|
-
|
|
|
subject of intransitive clause and agent of transitive clause
|
| Genitive
|
-s
|
manas
|
of man
|
possessor, patient of transitive clause, theme of ditransitive clause
|
| Instrumental
|
-mi
|
manami
|
with man
|
instrument, accompaniament, method, recipient of ditransitive clause
|
| Vialis
|
-ko
|
manako
|
through man
|
way in space or time
|
| Ablative
|
-de
|
manade
|
from man
|
direction from smth
|
| Allative
|
-ri
|
manari
|
to man
|
direction towards smth
|
| Locative
|
-thu
|
manathu
|
(in/on/under) man
|
various locations (with prepositions)
|
| Benefactive
|
-la
|
manala
|
for man
|
destination to smth, purpose
|
Definiteness
| Indefinite
|
um
|
um mana
|
a man
|
| Definite
|
Proper
|
is
|
is mana
|
the man
|
| Distant
|
at
|
at mana
|
that man
|
Verbs
Negation
| Affirmative
|
-
|
vāth-
|
(to) look, observe
|
| Negative
|
ne-
|
ne-vāth-
|
don't (to) look, observe
|
Preverbs
| Towards
|
ri-
|
rivāth-
|
to discern
|
| Away from
|
de-
|
devāth-
|
to look from afar
|
| Inside
|
en-
|
envāth-
|
to stare
|
| Outside
|
ba-
|
bavāth-
|
to look out
|
Voice
| Active
|
-
|
vāth-
|
(to) look, observe
|
| Reflexive
|
-si-
|
vāsith-
|
(to) look on self
|
| Causative
|
-ra-
|
vārath-
|
(to) to pay attention, (to) cause looking to smth
|
| Reflexive-Causative
|
-šē-
|
vāšēth-
|
(to) pay attention to self, (to) cause looking to self
|
Aspect
| Imperfective
|
-
|
vāth-
|
(to) look, observe
|
| Iterative
|
-jā-
|
vāthjā-
|
(to) look, observe (many times)
|
| Perfective
|
-nu-
|
vāthnu-
|
(to) look, observe
|
Person
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
-an / -n
|
I
|
-ami
|
we
|
| 2.
|
-aš / -š
|
you
|
-ači / -či
|
you
|
| 3.
|
-at / -t
|
he / she / it
|
-ari / -ri
|
they
|
| 4.
|
-ah / -h
|
someone / something
|
|
Mood
| Indicative
|
-
|
ēsjan
|
I am going
|
| Conditional
|
-pō
|
ēsjanpō
|
I would be going
|
| Potentional
|
-mē
|
ēsjanmē
|
I may be going
|
| Eventive
|
-vī
|
ēsjanvī
|
I could be going (potentional + conditional)
|
| Imperative
|
-īh
|
ēsjīh
|
you go !
|
Non-finite verbs
| Action noun
|
-it-u
|
vāthitu
|
looking, observing
|
| Participles
|
| Adjectival
|
-ŋ-
|
vāthaŋ-
|
looking, observing
|
| Adverbial
|
-ŋ-e
|
vāthaŋe
|
looking, observing
|
Adjectives and adverbs
- three degrees: positive, comparative, superlative
Degrees of comparison
| Positive
|
Comparative
|
Superlative
|
| -
|
es-
|
good
|
-im-
|
esim-
|
better
|
-tat-
|
estat-
|
best
|
| dōrg-
|
strong
|
dōrgim-
|
stronger
|
dōrgtat-
|
strongest
|
| ispānd-
|
equine
|
ispāndim-
|
more equine
|
ispāndtat-
|
most equine
|
Formation of adverbs
| Basal adjective
|
Derived adverb
|
| es-
|
good
|
-e
|
ese
|
well
|
| dōrg-
|
strong
|
dōrge
|
strongly
|
| ispānd-
|
equine
|
ispānde
|
like / as horse
|
Numerals
Cardinal numerals
| 1.
|
šine
|
| 2.
|
vahta
|
| 3.
|
hāran
|
| 4.
|
neljen
|
| 5.
|
taven
|
| 6.
|
hašte
|
| 7.
|
algan
|
| 8.
|
sekin
|
| 9.
|
žahsin
|
| 10.
|
žuvaŋ
|
| 11.
|
šinekičthu
|
| 12.
|
vahtakičthu
|
| 20.
|
vahtažāŋ
|
| 21.
|
vahtažāŋ šine
|
| 30
|
hāranžāŋ
|
| 100.
|
kidžāt
|
| 101.
|
kidžāt šine
|
| 120.
|
kidžāt vahtažāŋ
|
| 121.
|
kidžāt vahtažāŋ šine
|
| 200.
|
vahta kidžāt
|
| 1.000.
|
džāsul
|
| 10.000.
|
žāŋdžāsul
|
Derived numerals
|
|
Ordinal
|
Multiplicative
|
Reproductive
|
Distributive
|
Fractional
|
| -t-
|
-ljār-
|
-kōm-
|
-pen-
|
-te
|
| 1.
|
šinet-
|
šineljār-
|
šinekōm-
|
šinepen-
|
šinete
|
| 10.
|
žuvaŋt-
|
žuvaŋljār-
|
žuvaŋkōm-
|
žuvaŋpen-
|
žuvaŋte
|
| 11.
|
šinekičthut-
|
šinekičthuljār-
|
šinekičthukōm-
|
šinekičthupen-
|
šinekičthute
|
| 20.
|
vahtažāŋt-
|
vahtažāŋljār-
|
vahtažāŋkōm-
|
vahtažāŋpen-
|
vahtažāŋte
|
| 21.
|
vahtažāŋt- šinet-
|
vahtažāŋ šineljār-
|
vahtažāŋ šinekōm-
|
vahtažāŋ šinepen-
|
vahtažāŋ šinete
|
| 100.
|
kidžātt-
|
kidžātljār-
|
kidžātkōm-
|
kidžātpen-
|
kidžātte
|
| 101.
|
kidžātt- šinet-
|
kidžāt šineljār-
|
kidžāt šinekōm-
|
kidžāt šinepen-
|
kidžāt šinete
|
| 120.
|
kidžātt- vahtažāŋt-
|
kidžāt vahtažāŋljār-
|
kidžāt vahtažāŋkōm-
|
kidžāt vahtažāŋpen-
|
kidžāt vahtažāŋte
|
| 121.
|
kidžāt vahtažāŋt- šinet-
|
kidžāt vahtažāŋ šineljār-
|
kidžāt vahtažāŋ šinekōm-
|
kidžāt vahtažāŋ šinepen-
|
kidžāt vahtažāŋ šinete
|
| 200.
|
vahta kidžātt-
|
vahta kidžātljār-
|
vahta kidžātkōm-
|
vahta kidžātpen-
|
vahta kidžātte
|
| 1000.
|
džāsult-
|
džāsulljār
|
džāsulkōm-
|
džāsulpen-
|
džāsulte
|
| 10.000.
|
žāŋdžāsult-
|
žāŋdžāsulljār-
|
žāŋdžāsulkōm-
|
žāŋdžāsulpen-
|
žāŋdžāsulte
|
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
mi
|
I
|
mej
|
we
|
| 2.
|
šī
|
thou
|
čēj
|
you
|
| 3.
|
ola
|
he
|
olē
|
they
|
| oli
|
she
|
olī
|
| olu
|
it
|
olȳ
|
| 4.
|
kas
|
someone / something
|
Possessive suffixes
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
-mi
|
my
|
-mī
|
our
|
| 2.
|
-šī
|
thee
|
-čī
|
your
|
| 3.
|
-la
|
his
|
-lē
|
their
|
| -li
|
her
|
-lī
|
| -lu
|
its
|
-lȳ
|
| 4.
|
-kas
|
of someone / of something
|
Demonstrative pronouns
|
|
Definite proper
|
Definite distant
|
Indefinite
|
| Place
|
sōt
|
here
|
tōt
|
there
|
katis
|
somewhere
|
| Source
|
desōt
|
from here
|
detōt
|
from there
|
dekatis
|
from somewhere
|
| Purpose direction
|
risōt
|
to here
|
ritōt
|
to there, so far
|
rikati
|
to somewhere
|
| Path
|
isti
|
this way
|
atti
|
that way
|
umti
|
some way
|
| Time
|
istīm
|
now
|
attīm
|
then
|
| Method
|
sīd
|
in this way
|
tīd
|
in that way
|
umīd
|
in some way
|
| Quantity
|
isvēl
|
so much
|
| Qualify
|
akissōt
|
like this here
|
akattōt
|
like that
|
akkas
|
like something
|
| Reason
|
ispūdla
|
for this reason
|
atpūdla
|
for that reason
|
kapūdla
|
for some reason
|
Interrogative, relative, indefinite and unlimited pronouns
|
|
Interrogative / Relative
|
Indefinite
|
Unlimited
|
| Animate being
|
ka
|
who ? which ?
|
kas
|
someone
|
kavali
|
anyone
|
| Inanimate object
|
ku
|
what ? which ?
|
kus
|
something
|
|
anything
|
| Place
|
kati
|
where ?
|
katis
|
somewhere
|
kativali
|
anywhere
|
| Source
|
dekati
|
whence ?
|
dekatis
|
from somewhere
|
dekativali
|
from anywhere
|
| Purpose direction
|
rikati
|
whither ?
|
rikatis
|
to somewhere
|
rikativali
|
to anywhere
|
| Path
|
kajsti
|
which way ?
|
kajstis
|
via some way
|
kajstivali
|
via any way
|
| Time
|
kajstīm
|
when ?
|
kajstīms
|
once
|
kajstīmvali
|
ever
|
| Method
|
ke
|
how ?
|
kes
|
somehow
|
kevali
|
anyhow
|
| Quantity
|
kele
|
how much ?
|
keles
|
somehow much
|
kelevali
|
anyhow much
|
| Qualify
|
kašīn
|
which one ?
|
šīve
|
some
|
vale
|
any
|
| Reason
|
kala
|
why ?
|
Negative, universal and alternative pronouns
|
|
Negative
|
Universal
|
Alternative
|
| Animate being
|
neka
|
nobody
|
kaveš
|
every
|
kamūt
|
anyone else
|
| Inanimate object
|
neku
|
nothing
|
veš
|
every, all
|
kamūt
|
anything else
|
| Place
|
nekati
|
nowhere
|
kativeš
|
everywhere
|
katimūt
|
elswhere
|
| Source
|
denekati
|
from nowhere
|
dekativeš
|
from everywhere
|
dekatimūt
|
from elswhere
|
| Purpose direction
|
rinekati
|
to nowhere
|
rikativeš
|
to everywhere
|
rikatimūt
|
to elswhere
|
| Path
|
nekajsti
|
through no way
|
vešisti
|
through all ways
|
kajstimūt
|
which way else
|
| Time
|
netīm
|
never
|
veštīm
|
always
|
kajstīmmūt
|
when else
|
| Method
|
neke
|
nohow
|
veške
|
in all methods
|
kemūt
|
otherwise
|
| Quantity
|
neku
|
nothing
|
nekuvēl
|
otherwise than so many
|
| Quality
|
nekea / nekei / nekeu
|
neuter, indistinct
|
vala / vali / valu
|
any
|
mūta / mūti / mūtu
|
other
|
Reflexive, reciprocal and cooperative pronouns
| Reflexive
|
si
|
oneself
|
| Reciprocal
|
envahtasj (← en-vahta-si)
|
each other
|
| Cooperative
|
vipōre (← vi-pōru)
|
together cooperatively
|
Prepositions
Spatials, ablatival and allatival directionals
| en
|
in, inside
|
Locative
|
| from inside
|
Ablative
|
| to inside
|
Allative
|
|
|
| an
|
on
|
Locative
|
| from on
|
Ablative
|
| to on
|
Allative
|
|
|
| ans
|
above
|
Locative
|
| from above
|
Ablative
|
| to above
|
Allative
|
|
|
| uns
|
under
|
Locative
|
| from under
|
Ablative
|
| to under
|
Allative
|
|
|
| ter
|
beside
|
Locative
|
| from beside
|
Ablative
|
| to beside
|
Allative
|
|
|
| de
|
away
|
Locative
|
| from away
|
Ablative
|
| to away
|
Allative
|
|
|
| envahtē
|
between
|
Locative
|
| from between
|
Ablative
|
| to between
|
Allative
|
|
|
| sū
|
behind
|
Locative
|
| from behind
|
Ablative
|
| to behind
|
Allative
|
|
|
| ba
|
out
|
Locative
|
| from out
|
Ablative
|
| to out
|
Allative
|
|
|
| enter
|
around
|
Locative
|
| from around
|
Ablative
|
| to around
|
Allative
|
|
|
| var
|
before, opposite to
|
Locative
|
| from before, from opposite to
|
Ablative
|
| to before, to opposite to
|
Allative
|
|
|
| entīm
|
during, in time of
|
Locative
|
| from time of
|
Ablative
|
| to time of
|
Allative
|
|
|
| zā
|
after
|
Locative
|
| from after
|
Ablative
|
| to after
|
Allative
|
Other prepositions
| Companion, attributive object
|
vi
|
with
|
Instrumental
|
| Lack
|
bal
|
without
|
Ablative
|
| Alternative
|
enza
|
instead
|
Genitive
|
| Contrary
|
zavare
|
against
|
Allative
|
| Resistance
|
suže
|
despite, though
|
Genitive
|
| Stylization
|
vidlāŋ
|
along to, according to
|
Genitive
|
