Béu : Chapter 8

..... The -ana suffix

This suffix, added to a verb, gives a noun. For example ...

kludau = to write

kludana = writer/author

..... The béu participles and the NP with the present participle core

There are three participles in béu. They are known as plofai in the béu linguistic tradition.

A participle is an adjective that has been derived from a verb.

Taking kludau (to write) to demonstrate these participles.

1) kludi is an adjective meaning "written"

toili kludi = the written book ... and following the strong tendency for adjectives to get used as nouns in béu ... kludi => a thing that is written => a note

2) kludu is an adjective meaning "that must be written"

toili kludu = "the book that must be written" or "the book that should be written" ... and following the strong tendency for adjectives to get used as nouns in béu ... kludu => that which must be written => a (school) assignment

3) kludaula is an adjective meaning "writing at this moment".

Now kludaula is definitely an adjective.

kludaula toili "reading a book" is an adjective phrase (AP) in which the noun toili qualifies the adjective kludaula.

(If you remember, usually béu does not like a pilana making any phrase non-contiguous. -la suffixing to a gomia is an exception to this rule)

Now the phrase jono kludaula toili is a noun phrase (NP) in which the AP qualifies the noun jono

(Notice that in the clause that corresponds to the above NP, jonos kludora toili (John is reading the book), jono has the ergative suffix and the 3 words can occur in any order : with the NP, jono does not take the ergative suffix and the 3 words must occur in the order shown.)

Now the question is where is this special NP used. Well it is used in situations where English would use a complement clause. For example with algo meaning "to think about",^*

1) algara jono = I am thinking about John.

2) algara jono kludaula toili = I am thinking about John writing a book.

Note ... According to Dixon, the standard English translation of 2) would be "I am thinking about John's writing a book" which I find quite strange even though English is my mother tongue. I have decided to call this sort of construction in béu a special kind of NP, while Dixon has called the equivalent expression in English the "-ing" type of complement clause. I think this is just a naming thing and doesn't really matter.

^*"to think (that)" is alhu in béu. alhu also translates "to believe".

..... A discussion of English participles

Now English has two participles, the "active participle" and the "passive participle".

They appear as adjectives (of course, an adjective derived from a noun is the definition of "a participle"), however both forms also appear in verb phrases. If you are given a clause out of context it is sometimes impossible to tell if the participle is acting as an adjective or as part of a verb phrase. For example ... first the "active participle" ...

1) The writing man

2) The man is writing

3) The man is writing a book

In 1) "writing" is definitely an adjective. For instance you can substitute "green" for "writing" and the sentence makes perfect sense.

As for 2) ... well could be an adjective ... it passes the green-substitution-test.

For 3) ... No not an adjective "The man is green a book" doesn't make sense. The proper analysis of 3) is that "is writing" is a verb phrase (one that has given progressive meaning to the verb "write"). Now after we have figured this out we should have another look at 2). The proper analysis of this could be that "is writing" is a verb phrase. In fact there is no way to be sure and we would have to see the context in which 2) is embedded (and even then, there would be certain situations when either analysis could be valid. I would say that it is because of these situations in which either analysis is valid that let the original adjectival meaning spread and become a verbal meaning).

... now the "passive participle" ...

1) The broken piano

2) The piano is broken

3) The piano was broken

4) The piano was broken by the monkey

In 1) and 2) "broken" is definitely an adjective. For instance you can substitute "green" for "broken" and the sentence makes perfect sense.

As for 3) ... well could be an adjective ... it passes the green-substitution-test.

For 4) ... No not an adjective "The piano was green by the monkey" doesn't make sense. The proper analysis of 4) is that "was broken" is a verb phrase (one that has given passive meaning to the ambitransitive verb "break"). Now after we have figured this out we should have another look at 3). The proper analysis of this could be that "was broken" is a verb phrase. In fact there is no way to be sure and we would have to see the context in which 3) is embedded (and even then, there would be certain situations^* when either analysis could be valid. I would say that it is because of these situations in which either analysis is valid that let the original adjectival meaning spread and become a verbal meaning).

^*The five-week deadlock between striking Peugeot workers and their employer was broken yesterday when the management obtained a court order to end a 10-day sit-in at one of the two factories in eastern France, Sarah Lambert writes.

I would say either analysis is valid for the above sentence.

..... Start, Stop, Try

In béu, three secondary verbs (in English) are expressed by a copula plus a pilana. They are ...

to start drinking => láu solbelya

to stop drinking => láu solbelfe

to try drinking => sàu solbewo

And just to demonstrate that the above doesn't necessary lead to confusion ...

He talks about drinking => cator solbewo

We talk about trying to drink => catair wo sàu solbewo

So in fact the gomia take 8 of the 12 pilana ... ji ge n ho la lfe lya wo

The ergative s also occurs but only in its prepositional form sá

..... Want

If then the

1) wár bái nambo => I want to go home

2) wár bís nambo => I want you to go home

3) wár timpis ò => I want you to hit her/him

4) wár tà (gìs) timpirwa ò => I wish that you had hit her/him .... Note that we have timpirwa and not timpirwi

So in the above ... the construction as in 1) is used when the person doing the wanting, is also the subject (A or O) of the action required and the second action sort of "follows on" from the "wanting".

The construction as in 2) and 3) is used when the person doing the wanting is different from the subject (A or O) of the action required. The second action again sort of "following on" from the "wanting".

The construction as in 4) is used when the person doing the wanting is different from the subject (A or O) of the action required AND the second action DOES NOT "following on" from the "wanting".

TO THINK ABOUT

Now we have said before that béu has free word order, however this really only applies to the verb in R-form (R) and the S argument in an intransitive clause, and the R, A and O in a transitive clause. When you have a verb in gomia-form (G), in the subjunctive form (Sub) or in the imperative form (Imp), you must have these elements in the following order ;-

S G : S Sub ... the last of these (S -S ) is quite unusual. Maybe can have S I ... but then S must be in vocative case

A G O : A Sub O : Imp O ... expand this and make it look good. Maybe can have A I O ... but then A must be in vocative case

In the béu linguistic tradition, a clause that has one R verb in it, or one N verb, or one I verb is called aʒiŋko baga or a simple clause. Any clause that has an R verb plus an G or N, verb is called a aʒiŋko kaza or a complex clause.

..... The Imperative

In béu it is called "order"-form/shape.

This form is used for giving orders. With the s-form you definitely want some action to happen (and you don't expect a discussion about it).

Up until now, 7 protagonists have been expressed in every verb. With the s-form however only two protagonists can be expressed.

doikiwa = walk (when talking to one person)

doikewa = walk (when talking to more than one person)

Note that the verb au "to take, has the imperative forms wiwa and wewa.

Very occasionally the form doikawa is heard. When somebody has difficulty preforming some task the may "order" themselves to do it. But you could say this is an "unofficial" usuage.

..... Verb chains

Even though the gomia can be considered proper nouns, they obey different rules of syntax compared to normal nouns.

They never have the -s suffix (perhaps they can have the sá preposition).

We have already discussed the type B noun phrase that they can part of.

They do not take all the pilana. However they occur with ge and ji quite a lot. Corresponding to "by" and "in order to/to".

He passed his exams "cheat".ge = He past his exams by cheating

He went to the river "swim".ji = He went to the river to swim. .... note that ye woold also be acceptible here as well

They also occur with n and ho however the meaning that these suffixes add are a bit different with gomia.

When n is added to gomia it means that the verb is a second or later verb in a verb chain. The tense, aspect and evidentiality is the same as the initial verb. Also the subject (i.e. S or A) is the same as the subject of the initial verb.

When ho is added to gomia it means that the verb is a second or later verb in a verb chain. The tense, aspect and evidentiality is the same as the initial verb. Also the subject (i.e. S or A) is the same as the object of the initial verb.

Examples of the usuage of n

bawas bura nambo laulan halfan => The men are going home singing and laughing T ... N ... N

bawas bura nambo nà laula lauloi halfan => The men are going home singing songs and laughing T ... T ... N

bawas bura nambo laulan nà halfa jonowo => The men are going home singing and laughing about John T ... N ... T

Could this be a good test for transitivity in béu ?? ... -n or nà ???

This is used when things happen at the same time and the subject of all the verbs is the same. Notice that the n-forms can come after the r-form verb.

It is not really important which verb comes first, perhaps the one considered the most relevant/important should come first.

The three verbs above sort of amalgamate into a single verb. The actions should be considered a single event.

In the examples above the three constituent verbs of the verb chain happen at the same time but this is not always the case. In the example below the constituent verbs happen one after the other.

wewa hufu báin kyén jonoye = Take the sheep and give it to John.

Examples of the usuage of ho

Verbs that commonly come at the end of a verb chain.

For example ...... gàu = to descend, jompai = to rub …. in verb chains, the person, tense/aspect and evidentuality must be the same on every verb, but the idea of transitivity is fluid ??? For example ... jompara shi gàuho = "I am rubbing it down", jompai = "a rubbing", gàu = "a desent", gàujompai = erosion (word building ??)

You would say "The rain erodes the mountain-range" rather than "The rain rubs the mountain-range down" because the "real" meaning of "rub" involves something solid against a something rigid.

I came and saw her => kari nà ò klói N ... T

I came to see her = I came in order to see her => kari jí ò klói

I saw her and went => klari ò báin T ... N

I saw her and she went => klari ò baiho

..... The Subjunctive or the irrealis

In béu it is called "suggest"-form/shape.

You change the "r" to an "s" basically. Nothing comes after the "s". So there is no tense/aspect or evidentiality expressed on this verb form.

When this form is used in a main clause, you are gently urging some action (and you are definitely open to discussion about it).

For example ;-

doikain = Let's walk

It is also used in the ibla/jú construction. When the first condition can now no longer be met and hence the second part can not be also.

ibla "ask"in pà jú "tell"an gì = If you had asked me, I would have told you

It is also used in other places .... for example, after the verbs "want", "

Often occurs when in English we have "would".

== ..... Complements

..... To think about

Further uses of the "s" form of the verb. That is the subjunctive.

Also used in dependent clauses with the meaning ...

that xxx should yyy.

Used after "want/hope/believe ?" if the subject is different. If subject is the same then the verb is in the gomia form.

hear, see, think, like, remember, know, believe | use tà + full verb with FACT complements.

hear, see, like, remember | use gomia with ACTION complements (English would use "-ing")

Sometimes when English would use the "to" construction, béu would use the -u participle | remember

Some rubbish

poma = leg

pomas = to kick, pomari = I kicked

pomaswan = liable to kick, fond of kicking

pomonda = good to kick

klonda = worth seeing

Note that wan tends to be affixed to nouns while uzhi gets affixed to verbs.

to play	lento	playful	lentuʒi
to rest/relax	loŋge	lazy	loŋguʒi
to lie	selne	untruthful by disposition	selnuʒi
to work	kodai	diligent	koduʒi

To fix up this bit.....Of course we can make two clauses, and have the second clause one element inside the first clause. To do that you must use the particle tà. Equivalent to one of the uses of "that" in English. tà basically tells you that the following clause should be treated like a single element, like a single noun.

I should mention sá tà ...

solbe = to drink

heŋgo = to live (or it could mean "a life")

soŋkau = to die (or it could mean "death")

glabu = person

moze = water

moʒi = steam

heŋgola = alive, living

soŋki = dead

..... KENKO

keŋko = salt ... base form ... noun

keŋkua = salty ... adjective

keŋkia = salt-free ... adjective

keŋkari = I added salt ... verb (transitive)

keŋkos = to add salt

kenkoska = to not add salt

..... Examples of prepositions

move these somewhere else

ilai = between

geka = without

mú = outside of

muka = outside

pika = inside

pòi = to enter or to put in

piwa nambo = go into the house

wiwa toilia di poiho toilicoi = put these book in the bookcase

wiwa toilia di pòin nambo = take these book into the house

wiwa toilia di pòin nambo kyén jeneye = take these book into the house and give to Jane

méu = to exit or to take out ... I guess cat must be mèu

miwa nambo báin = come out of the house, get out of the house

.... -NI, NAI and -GO

pronounced	operation	label	example
-nai	adjective => noun	"-ness" or "-ity"	boinai = goodness
-go	noun => adjective, plus adjective => adjective, plus verb => adjective	"ish"	gla.go = effeminate, hia.go = reddish, bla.go = quarrelsome

gèu	green	geunai	greenness
juga	wide	jugani	width
tumu	stupid	tumuni	stupidity
bòi	good	boinai	goodness
mutu	important	mutumni	importance

-go

gó = to resemble, to be like

gó dó = to be the exact image of

gla.go = effeminate, hia.go = reddish, bla.go = quarrelsome

Sometimes the -go derived words have negative connotations, as in gal.go

There is a suffix -ka (notice it is not considered a pilana), that often has a positive connotation, sometimes making a couplet with a -go derived word. For example ;-

gla.ka = womanly

kài = to appear, to seem

kò = appearance

..... Getting the opposite by adding "u"

.... A prefix for adjectives

taitau = many

utaitau = few

mutu = important

umutu = unimportant

.... and a prefix for adverb

nan = for a long time

unan = not for a long time

.... and a prefix for nouns

mezna = to fight

meznana = combatant

umeznana = non-combatant

As in English, not found that often. Sometimes found in rule books.

.... but an infix for verbs

There is a reason why we do not simply prefix u to the verbs also.

kanja = to fold

kunjana = "folding" (an adjective) or "one that folds" (a noun)

ukunjana = "one that doesn't fold"

Suppose we did simply prefix u to the verb. Then "to unfold" would be ukanja, and hence ukanjana would be a noun meaning "one that unfolds". But if you look up a bit, you can see that this form (ukanjana) already has the meaning "one that doesn't fold". This would cause confusion.

kunja	to fold	kunjua	to unfold
laiba	to cover	laibua	to uncover
fuŋga	to fasten, to lock	fuŋgua	to unfasten, to unlock
benda	to assemble, to put together	bendua	to take apart, to disassemble
pauca	to stop up, to block	paucua	to unstop
sensa	to weave	sensua	to unravel
fiŋka	to put on clothes, to dress	fiŋkua	to undress
tasta	to tangle	tastua	to untangle

Note that in any other form but the geladi, the u changes to a w. For example ;-

fiŋkwori = he undressed

Béu : Chapter 8

Contents