- Keβag
Phonology
Every consonant comes with a lenited and palatalized counterpart. They are basic for declinantion and conjugation:
| Alternative Lenited form |
|
dh |
fh |
gh |
kh |
lh |
mh |
|
|
|
|
|
th |
vh
|
| Lenited form |
bh |
ð |
ɸ |
ɣ |
x |
ł |
μ |
nh |
ph |
qh |
rh |
z |
θ |
β
|
| Full form |
b |
d |
f |
g |
k |
l |
m |
n |
p |
q |
r |
s |
t |
v
|
| Palatalized form |
b' |
d' |
f' |
ż |
c |
l' |
m' |
ň |
p' |
q' |
r' |
ş |
t' |
v'
|
Vowels are:
- a [a] ← ancient vowel: A
- e [e] ← ancient vowel: E
- i [i] ← ancient vowel: I
- o [o] ← ancient vowel: O
- u [u] ← ancient vowel: U
- ë [ə] ← from reduction of ancient vowels
- ä [æ] ← ancient group: AHE
- ö [ɶ] ← ancient group: OHE
- ü [y] ← ancient group: UHE
- y [ɨ] ← ancient group: IHE
Morphology
The basic word order is VSO - Verb-Subject-Object.
Article
There is both indefinite and definite article
Indefinite article
The indefinite article (English a, an) has a plural form, which traslates the meaning of some.
| Masculine
|
| Case |
Singular |
Plural
|
|
Ancient form |
Modern form |
Ancient form |
Modern form
|
| Nominative |
VOM |
vë |
VE |
v'ë
|
| Genitive |
VI |
v'ë |
VOS |
ve
|
| Dative |
VON |
vë |
VIA |
v'a
|
| Accusative |
VIU |
v'u |
VIO |
v'ë
|
| Feminine
|
| Case |
Singular |
Plural
|
|
Ancient form |
Modern form |
Ancient form |
Modern form
|
| Nominative |
VO |
vë |
VE |
v'ë
|
| Genitive |
VAS |
ve |
VOS |
ve
|
| Dative |
VON |
vë |
VIA |
v'a
|
| Accusative |
VIU |
v'u |
VIO |
v'ë
|
Definite article
| Masculine
|
| Case |
Singular |
Plural
|
|
Ancient form |
Modern form |
Ancient form |
Modern form
|
| Nominative |
EN |
ë |
EMI |
en
|
| Genitive |
ENI |
ë |
EMOS |
en
|
| Dative |
EHO |
e |
EMIA |
eňa
|
| Accusative |
EH |
ë |
EMO |
en
|
| Feminine
|
| Case |
Singular |
Plural
|
|
Ancient form |
Modern form |
Ancient form |
Modern form
|
| Nominative |
EN |
e |
ENI |
e
|
| Genitive |
ENAS |
en |
ENOS |
enu
|
| Dative |
EHA |
e |
ENIA |
eňa
|
| Accusative |
ENA |
e |
ENIO |
eň
|
Noun morphology
- 1st declension - Nouns starting in consonant and ending in consonant - Masculine
| vad (son)
|
|
|
|
Definite declension |
Indefinite declension
|
|
Ancient term |
Modern term |
Modern term
|
|
Singular |
Plural |
Singular |
Plural |
Singular |
Plural
|
| Nominative |
VADOM |
VADE |
ë vad |
en βad' |
vë vad |
v'ë βad'
|
| Genitive |
VADI |
VADOS |
ë βad' |
enu vad |
v'ë βad' |
ve vad
|
| Dative |
VADON |
VADIA |
e βad |
eňa βad'a |
vë vad |
v'a βad'a
|
| Accusative |
VADIU |
VADO |
ë vad'u |
en βad |
v'u βad'u |
v'ë βad
|
- 1st declension - Nouns starting in consonant and ending in vowel - Feminine
| vad (daughter)
|
|
|
|
Definite declension |
Indefinite declension
|
|
Ancient term |
Modern term |
Modern term
|
|
Singular |
Plural |
Singular |
Plural |
Singular |
Plural
|
| Nominative |
VADO |
VADI |
e vad |
e βad' |
vë βad |
v'ë βad'
|
| Genitive |
VADAS |
VADOS |
en vad |
enu vad |
ve vad |
ve vad
|
| Dative |
VADIO |
VADIA |
e βad' |
eňa βad'a |
vë vad' |
v'a βad'a
|
| Accusative |
VADIU |
VADIO |
e βad'u |
eň βad' |
v'u βad'u |
v'ë βad'
|
- 2nd declension - Nouns starting in vowel and ending in consonant - Masculine
| eθen (hand)
|
|
|
|
Definite declension |
Indefinite declension
|
|
Ancient term |
Modern term |
Modern term
|
|
Singular |
Plural |
Singular |
Plural |
Singular |
Plural
|
| Nominative |
ETENOS |
ETENE |
ënh eθen |
eμ eθeň |
vëμ eθen |
v'ë eθeň
|
| Genitive |
ETENI |
ETENOS |
ëň eθeň |
eμëz eθen |
v'ë eθeň |
vëz eθen
|
| Dative |
ETENON |
ETENIA |
e-eθen |
em'-eθeňa |
vënh eθen |
v'a eθeňa
|
| Accusative |
ETENIU |
ETENO |
ë-eθeňu |
eμ eθen |
v'u eθeňu |
v'ë eθen
|
- 2nd declension - Nouns starting in vowel and ending in vowel - Feminine
| um (mother)
|
|
|
|
Definite declension |
Indefinite declension
|
|
Ancient term |
Modern term |
Modern term
|
|
Singular |
Plural |
Singular |
Plural |
Singular |
Plural
|
| Nominative |
UMO |
UMI |
enh um |
eň um' |
v-um |
v'ë um'
|
| Genitive |
UMAS |
UMOS |
enhëz um |
enhëz um |
vëz um |
vëz um
|
| Dative |
UMIO |
UMIA |
e-um' |
eň-um'a |
vënh um' |
v'a um'a
|
| Accusative |
UMIU |
UMIO |
enh um'u |
eň-um'o |
v'u um'u |
v'ë um'o
|
- 3rd declension - Nouns starting in consonant and ending in consonant
Nouns belonging to the 3rd declension are said "neutre". They take masculine articles and adjectives in singular, and feminine articles and adjectives in plural.
| da (house)
|
|
|
|
Definite declension |
Indefinite declension
|
|
Ancient term |
Modern term |
Modern term
|
|
Singular |
Plural |
Singular |
Plural |
Singular |
Plural
|
| Nominative |
DAK |
DAKI |
ë da |
e ðac |
vë da |
v'ë ðac
|
| Genitive |
DAKI |
DAKOS |
ë ðac |
enu dak |
v'ë ðac |
ve dak
|
| Dative |
DAKON |
DAKIA |
e ðak |
eňa ðaca |
vë dak |
v'a ðaca
|
| Accusative |
DAKIU |
DAKIO |
ë dacu |
eň ðac |
v'u ðacu |
v'ë ðac
|
Adjective morphology
Adjectives have a simpler morphology than nouns' one. They decline according their nouns' gender and number. As the position of adjectives is always after their nouns, if they begin in consonant, their first consonant undergoes lenition if required by the ancient last vowel of the noun. If they begin with a vowel the ancient last consonant of the desinence of the nouns could be restored (and lenited).
We have to enlist the entire declension path of nouns and adjective together, to show the changes they both may undergo.
- 1st adjectival declension - Adjectives starting in consonant after a noun ending in consonant (masculine)
| bok (new)
|
|
Ancient term |
Modern term
|
|
Singular |
Plural |
Singular |
Plural
|
| Nominative |
VADOM BOKO |
VADE BOKE |
ë vad bok |
en βad' bhoc
|
| Genitive |
VADI BOKI |
VADOS BOKU |
ë βad' bhoc |
enu vad boku
|
| Dative |
VADON BOKI |
VADIA BOKI |
e βad boc |
eňa βad'a bhoc
|
| Accusative |
VADIU BOKU |
VADO BOKO |
ë vad'u bhoku |
en βad bhok
|
- 1st adjectival declension - Adjectives starting in consonant after a noun ending in vowel (feminine)
| bok (new)
|
|
Ancient term |
Modern term
|
|
Singular |
Plural |
Singular |
Plural
|
| Nominative |
VADO BOKO |
VADI BOKE |
e vad bhok |
e βad' bhoc
|
| Genitive |
VADAS BOKAS |
VADOS BOKU |
en vad bok |
enu vad boku
|
| Dative |
VADIO BOKA |
VADIA BOKI |
e βad' bhok |
eňa βad'a bhoc
|
| Accusative |
VADIU BOKA |
VADIO BOKO |
e βad'u bhok |
eň βad' bhok
|
- 2st adjectival declension - Adjectives starting in vowel after a noun ending in consonant (masculine)
| aɣon (old)
|
|
Ancient term |
Modern term
|
|
Singular |
Plural |
Singular |
Plural
|
| Nominative |
VADOM AGONO |
VADE AGONE |
ë vaðëμ aɣon |
en βad' aɣoň
|
| Genitive |
VADI AGONI |
VADOS AGONU |
ë βad' aɣoň |
enu vaðëz aɣonu
|
| Dative |
VADON AGONI |
VADIA AGONI |
e βaðënh aɣoň |
eňa βad'a aɣoň
|
| Accusative |
VADIU AGONU |
VADO AGONO |
ë vad'u aɣonu |
en βad aɣon
|
- 2nd adjectival declension - Adjectives starting in vowel after a noun ending in vowel (feminine)
| aɣon (old)
|
|
Ancient term |
Modern term
|
|
Singular |
Plural |
Singular |
Plural
|
| Nominative |
VADO AGONO |
VADI AGONE |
e vad aɣon |
e βad' aɣoň
|
| Genitive |
VADAS AGONAS |
VADOS AGONU |
en vaðëz aɣon |
enu vaðëz aɣonu
|
| Dative |
VADIO AGONA |
VADIA AGONI |
e βad' aɣon |
eňa βad'a aɣoň
|
| Accusative |
VADIU AGONA |
VADIO AGONO |
e βad'u aɣon |
eň βad' aɣon
|
- 3rd adjectival declension - Adjective starting in consonant with a noun ending in consonant
| bok (new)
|
|
Ancient term |
Modern term
|
|
Singular |
Plural |
Singular |
Plural
|
| Nominative |
DAK BOKO |
DAKI BOKE |
ë da bok |
e ðac bhoc
|
| Genitive |
DAKI BOKI |
DAKOS BOKU |
ë ðac bhoc |
enu dak boku
|
| Dative |
DAKON BOKI |
DAKIA BOKI |
e ðak boc |
eňa ðaca bhoc
|
| Accusative |
DAKIU BOKU |
DAKIO BOKO |
ë dacu bhoku |
eň ðac bhoc
|
- 3rd adjectival declension - Adjective starting in vowel with a noun ending in consonant
| aɣon (old)
|
|
Ancient term |
Modern term
|
|
Singular |
Plural |
Singular |
Plural
|
| Nominative |
DAK AGONO |
DAKI AGONE |
ë dax aɣon |
e ðac aɣoň
|
| Genitive |
DAKI AGONI |
DAKOS AGONU |
ë ðac aɣoň |
enu daxëz aɣonu
|
| Dative |
DAKON AGONI |
DAKIA AGONI |
e ðaxënh aɣoň |
eňa ðaca aɣoň
|
| Accusative |
DAKIU AGONU |
DAKIO AGONO |
ë dacu aɣonu |
eň ðac aɣon
|
Pronouns
Personal
| English |
Nominative |
Genitive |
Dative |
Accusative |
|
|
Ancient form |
Modern form |
Ancient form |
Modern form |
Ancient form |
Modern form |
Ancient form |
Modern form |
|
| I |
GA |
gë |
GOS |
go |
GOSIA |
goşë |
GAMO |
gëm
|
| Thou |
DA |
dë |
DOS |
do |
DOSIA |
doşë |
DAMO |
dëm
|
| He |
LO |
le |
LU |
lë |
LUIA |
lëjë |
LUMO |
lëm
|
| She |
SO |
se |
SA |
së |
SAIA |
sëjë |
SAMO |
sëm
|
| It |
NA |
në |
NES |
në |
NESIA |
nëşë |
NAMO |
nëm
|
| We |
MAN |
ma |
MANES |
man |
MANESIA |
manheşë |
MANEMO |
manhëm
|
| You |
TEL |
t'e |
TELOS |
t'el |
TELOSIA |
t'ełëşë |
TELOMO |
t'ełëm
|
| They |
KOD |
ke |
KODOS |
kod |
KODOSIA |
koðëşë |
KODOMO |
koðëm
|
Possessive
| English |
Ancient form |
Modern form |
Modern lenited form
|
| My |
GOS |
go |
ɣo
|
| Your (thou) |
DOS |
do |
ðo
|
| His |
LU |
lë |
łë
|
| Her |
SA |
së |
zë
|
| Its |
NES |
në |
nhë
|
| Our |
MANES |
man |
μan
|
| Your |
TELOS |
tel |
θel
|
| Their |
KODOS |
kod |
xod
|
Possessive pronouns (a genitive form of personal pronouns) come after their nouns and endure lenition, if required. Examples:
- my house: ë da go
- of my house: ë ðac ɣo
- to her daughter: ë βad' zë
- we see their daughter: lo kat e vad'u xod
Interrogative
| Case |
What? |
Who?
|
|
Ancient form |
Modern form |
Ancient form |
Modern form
|
| Nominative |
PATO |
pat |
PAHETOM |
pät
|
| Genitive |
PATI |
pat' |
PAHETI |
pät'
|
| Dative |
PATO |
pat |
PAHETON |
pät
|
| Accusative |
PATIU |
pat'u |
PAHETIU |
pät'u
|
Which: [POHETO]: pöt (declined and treated as an adjective)
Relative
The relative pronoun in pöt [POHETOM], declined as a noun, with the definite article.
| Masculine
|
|
Ancient term |
Modern term
|
|
Singular |
Plural |
Singular |
Plural
|
| Nominative |
POHETOM |
POHETE |
ë pöt |
en phöt'
|
| Genitive |
POHETI |
POHETOS |
ë phöt' |
enu pöt
|
| Dative |
POHETON |
POHETIA |
e phöt |
eňa phöt'a
|
| Accusative |
POHETIU |
POHETO |
ë pöt'u |
en phöt
|
| Feminine
|
|
Ancient term |
Modern term
|
|
Singular |
Plural |
Singular |
Plural
|
| Nominative |
POHETO |
POHETI |
e pöt |
e phöt'
|
| Genitive |
POHETAS |
POHETOS |
en pöt |
enu pöt
|
| Dative |
POHETIO |
POHETIA |
e phöt' |
eňa phöt'a
|
| Accusative |
POHETIU |
POHETIO |
e phöt'u |
eň phöt'
|
Verb morphology
Verbs conjugate according to person, number and aspect. They do not conjugate according to tense.
- 1st conjugation - Verbs starting in consonant
| kato (to see)
|
| Person |
Imperfective |
Perfective |
|
|
Ancient form |
Modern form |
Ancient form |
Modern form
|
| I |
LA KATE |
lë xat' |
OLAS KATE |
olë kat'
|
| Thou |
LEM KATEN |
lë kat' |
OLEM KATEN |
ol kat'
|
| He/She/It |
LO KAT |
le xa |
OLO KATO |
ol xat
|
| We |
LUV KATOM |
lo kat |
OLU KATOM |
olë xat
|
| You |
LUS KATI |
lo kat' |
OLU KATIS |
olë xat'
|
| They |
LI KATUN |
l'ë xatu |
OLI KATUN |
ol' xatu
|
- 2nd conjugation - Verbs starting in vowel
| aso (to eat)
|
| Person |
Imperfective |
Perfective |
|
|
Ancient form |
Modern form |
Ancient form |
Modern form
|
| I |
LA ASE |
l-aş |
OLAS ASE |
olëz aş
|
| Thou |
LEM ASEN |
lëμ aş |
OLEM ASEN |
olëμ aş
|
| He/She/It |
LO AS |
l-a |
OLO ASO |
ol-as
|
| We |
LUV ASOM |
loβ as |
OLU ASOM |
olë as
|
| You |
LUS ASI |
loz aş |
OLU ASIS |
olë aş
|
| They |
LI ASUN |
l'-asu |
OLI ASUN |
ol'-asu
|
The meaning of past is expressed by an adverbial particle, placed after the verb:
- DA → dë (lenited form: ðe)
Negative declensions
Verbs form negative sentences with special negative declensions:
- 1st conjugation - Verbs starting in consonant
| kato (to see)
|
| Person |
Imperfective |
Perfective |
|
|
Ancient form |
Modern form |
Ancient form |
Modern form
|
| I |
ME LA KATE |
μë xat' |
ME OLAS KATE |
μolë kat'
|
| Thou |
ME LEM KATEN |
μë kat' |
ME OLEM KATEN |
μol kat'
|
| He/She/It |
ME LO KAT |
μe xa |
ME OLO KATO |
μol xat
|
| We |
ME LUV KATOM |
mo kat |
ME OLU KATOM |
μolë xat
|
| You |
ME LUS KATI |
mo kat' |
ME OLU KATIS |
μolë xat'
|
| They |
ME LI KATUN |
m'ë xatu |
ME OLI KATUN |
μol' xatu
|
- 2nd conjugation - Verbs starting in vowel
| aso (to eat)
|
| Person |
Imperfective |
Perfective |
|
|
Ancient form |
Modern form |
Ancient form |
Modern form
|
| I |
ME LA ASE |
m-aş |
ME OLAS ASE |
μolëz aş
|
| Thou |
ME LEM ASEN |
μëμ aş |
ME OLEM ASEN |
μolëμ aş
|
| He/She/It |
ME LO AS |
m-a |
ME OLO ASO |
μol-as
|
| We |
ME LUV ASOM |
moβ as |
ME OLU ASOM |
μolë as
|
| You |
ME LUS ASI |
moz aş |
ME OLU ASIS |
μolë aş
|
| They |
ME LI ASUN |
m'-asu |
ME OLI ASUN |
μol'-asu
|
Passive declension
To express a passive form, verbs have a special passive conjugation, normal and negative.
- 1st passive conjugation - Verbs starting in consonant
| kato (to see)
|
| Person |
Imperfective |
Perfective |
|
Imperfective |
Perfective |
|
|
Ancient form |
Modern form |
Ancient form |
Modern form |
Ancient form |
Modern form |
Ancient form |
Modern form
|
| I |
LARO KATE |
lër kat' |
OLASOR KATE |
olëzër kat' |
ME LARO KATE |
μër xat' |
ME OLASOR KATE |
μozër kat'
|
| Thou |
LEMOR KATEN |
lemër kat' |
OLEMOR KATEN |
olëμër kat' |
ME LEMOR KATEN |
μër kat' |
ME OLEMOR KATEN |
μolër kat'
|
| He/She/It |
LOR KAT |
lër ka |
OLORO KATO |
olër xat |
ME LOR KAT |
μër ka |
ME OLORO KATO |
μolor xat
|
| We |
LUVOR KATOM |
loβër kat |
OLURU KATOM |
oloru xat |
ME LUVOR KATOM |
moβër kat |
ME OLURU KATOM |
μolur xat
|
| You |
LUR KATI |
lër kat' |
OLURU KATIS |
oloru xat' |
ME LUR KATI |
mor kat' |
ME OLUru KATIS |
μolur xat'
|
| They |
LIR KATUN |
l'ër xatu |
OLIRI KATUN |
ol'ër xatu |
ME LIR KATUN |
m'ër katu |
ME OLIRI KATUN |
μol'ër xatu
|
- 2nd passive conjugation - Verbs starting in vowel
| aso (to eat)
|
| Person |
Imperfective |
Perfective |
|
|
Ancient form |
Modern form |
Ancient form |
Modern form
|
| I |
LA ASE |
l-aş |
OLAS ASE |
olëz aş
|
| Thou |
LEM ASEN |
lëμ aş |
OLEM ASEN |
olëμ aş
|
| He/She/It |
LO AS |
l-a |
OLO ASO |
ol-as
|
| We |
LUV ASOM |
loβ as |
OLU ASOM |
olë as
|
| You |
LUS ASI |
loz aş |
OLU ASIS |
olë aş
|
| They |
LI ASUN |
l'-asu |
OLI ASUN |
ol'-asu
|
Verbal adjective
Verbs build a verbal adjective, with a perfective and passive meaning, similar to English past participle.
The desinence -öt [-OHETO] is added to the root of the verb, and the previous consonant is lenited.
- kato [KATO] to see → kat- + -öt [KAT- + -OHETO] → kaθöt [KATOHETO], seen
- aso [ASO] to eat → azöt [ASOHETO], eaten
Sentences
- Did you see my house?: ol kat' dë po ë dacu ɣo?
- My name is Marco: le bhe ë sefo go Marco
- He was eating your apple: l-a dë e galoňu ðo
- Did you read the book?: olëμ arec dë po ë recu?
- Did they see my new house?: ol' xatu ðë po ë dacu bhoku ɣo?
- What are you writing?: lë tawş po pat'u?
- What are he doing?: le za po pat'u?
- Who were they searching for?: l'-yμavu dë po pät'u?
- I speak Keβag: lë qhal' gë e Keβażu
- Don't you speak Keβag?: μë qal' po e Keβażu?
- They don't speak your language: m'ë qhalu e vörhişu θel
- I'm at my home: lë bheş taɸ ë ðac ɣo
- I'll speak with her father: olë qal' sunh e ɸät së
- Which book do you search for?: lëμ ymav' po recu phöt'u?
- The man, you see, is my father: lë kat' ë pöt'u, le bhe ë kal ë fät go.
Vocabulary
- aɣon: old [AGONO]
- areko: to read [AREKO]
- aso: to eat [ASO]
- beso: to be [BESO]
- bok: new [BOKO]
- da: house, home [DAK]
- eθen: hand [ETENOM]
- fät: father [FAHETOM]
- kato: to see [KATO]
- pat: what [PATO]
- pät: who [PAHETOM]
- peko: to buy [PEKO]
- qalo: to speak [QALO]
- ruk: book [RUKOM]
- satno: to do, to make [SATO]
- tawso: to write [TAUSO]
- um: mother [UMO]
- vad: son [VADOM]; daughter [VADO]
- vörhis: language [VOHERISO]
