User:Bukkia/sandboxIII
Consonants
This is the consonant system in the IPA consonant table:
| Bilabial | Labio- dental |
Dental | Alveolar | Post- alveolar |
Palatal | Velar | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | ||||||||
| Nasal | ||||||||
| Vibrant | ||||||||
| Fricative | ||||||||
| Affricate | ||||||||
| Approximant | ||||||||
| Lateral approximant | ||||||||
- 1: Allophone of [m] before labiodental consonants
- 2: Allophone of [n] before velar consonant
Palatalization
Some consonants come in pair with a palatalized counterpart:
| Non-palatalized consonant | Palatalized counterpart |
|---|---|
| k | č |
| g | dž |
| s | š |
| z | ž |
| t | č |
| d | dž |
This phenomenon, called palatalization, is very common, usually (but not always) when one of these consonants comes in contact with the semivowel [j]. It's very important, because it occurs many times in noun declension.
Vowels
| Front | Near-front | Central | Near-back | Back | ||
| Close |
| |||||
| Close-mid | ||||||
| Mid | ||||||
| Open-mid | ||||||
| Open | ||||||
Nouns
| Singular | ||
|---|---|---|
| Case | Consonant | Vowel |
| Nominative | - | - |
| Genitive | -u | -w |
| Dative | -a | -ja |
| Accusative | -o | -wo |
| Instrumental | -en | -jen |
| Locative | -ot | -jot |
| Adlative | -ás | -jás |
| Delative | -ád | -jád |
| Plural | ||
|---|---|---|
| Case | Consonant | Vowel |
| Nominative | -y | -j |
| Genitive | -yw | -ju |
| Dative | -ya | -jay |
| Accusative | -yo | -joy |
| Instrumental | -yen | -jeyn |
| Locative | -yt | -jyt |
| Adlative | -ýs | -jýs |
| Delative | -ýd | -jýd |
The dual number indicates a pair of things. It has a lesser number of endings, only four, with consonant and vowel counteparts.
| Dual | ||
|---|---|---|
| Case | Consonant | Vowel |
| Nominative Accusative |
-et | -t |
| Genitive Dative Adlative |
-etu | -ču |
| Instrumental Delative |
-etyn | -čyn |
| Locative | -ec | -ciw |
Examples:
| stuv = village, town | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Nominative | stuv | stuvy | stuvet |
| Genitive | stuvu | stuvyw | stuvetu |
| Dative | stuva | stuvya | stuvetu |
| Accusative | stuvo | stuvyo | stuvet |
| Instrumental | stuven | stuvyen | stuvetyn |
| Locative | stuvot | stuvyt | stuvec |
| Adlative | stuvás | stuvýs | stuvetu |
| Delative | stuvád | stuvýd | stuvetyn |
| mila = woman | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Nominative | mila | milaj | milat |
| Genitive | milaw | milaju | milaču |
| Dative | milaja | milajay | milaču |
| Accusative | milawo | milajoy | milat |
| Instrumental | milajen | milajeyn | milačyn |
| Locative | milajot | milajyt | milaciw |
| Adlative | milajás | milajýs | milaču |
| Delative | milajád | milajýd | milačyn |
Some nouns, even if they end with a consonant, follow the vowel declension pattern. In this case their last consonant undergoes palatalization, except for the nominative and genitive in the singular, and for all cases in dual. If there is a long vowel, when palatalization occurs, the vowel gets short.
| krís = king | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Nominative | krís | krišy | kríset |
| Genitive | krísu | krišu | krísetu |
| Dative | kriša | krišay | krísetu |
| Accusative | kríswo | krišoy | kríset |
| Instrumental | krišen | krišeyn | krísetyn |
| Locative | krišot | krišyt | krísec |
| Adlative | krišás | krišýs | krísetu |
| Delative | krišád | krišýd | krísetyn |
Other nouns which undergo palatalization are: ák (water ‣ plur. ačy), nát (father‣ plur. načy), héd (mother ‣ plur. hedžy)
If a noun already ends with -u, the genitive ending in the singular melds with this vowel and becomes -ú.
- mázu (house) ‣ mázú
Article
There is only the form for the definite article (the): ó. It has to be declined according to its noun.
| ó = the | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Nominative | ó | ony | ont |
| Genitive | onu | onju | onču |
| Dative | ona | onja | onču |
| Accusative | ono | onjo | ont |
| Instrumental | onen | onjen | ontyn |
| Locative | onot | onyt | onec |
| Adlative | onás | onýs | onču |
| Delative | onád | onýd | ontyn |
Adjectives
The adjectives must agree with their nouns in number and case, but only in attributive position. In prepositive position adjectives are not declined:
- Attributive position: nom.: dén mila (a good woman), gen.: dénu milaw (of a good woman)
- Prepositive position: ó mila dén ér (the woman is good), ony milaj dén eruk (the women are good)
Declension
The adjectival declension follows the nominal declension's pattern, with the distinction between consonant and vowel endings. Adjectives always come before their nouns, except for participles, that can occur after.
If the adjective comes before a nouns which is definited, it melds with the article, and it uses the definite adjectival declension.
- Dén mila: a good woman
- Dénon mila: the good woman
- Dényenon milajeyn: with the good women
Here there are samples from two adjectives:
| dén = good | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Nominative | dénon | dényjon | déneton |
| Genitive | dénun | dénywon | dénetun |
| Dative | dénan | dényajon | dénetun |
| Accusative | dénon | dényojon | déneton |
| Instrumental | dénenon | dényenon | dénetynon |
| Locative | dénoton | dényton | dénecon |
| Adlative | dénáson | dénýson | dénetun |
| Delative | dénádon | dénýdon | dénetynon |
| pana = high | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Nominative | panan | panajon | panaton |
| Genitive | panawon | panajun | panačun |
| Dative | panajan | panajayn | panačun |
| Accusative | panawon | panajoyn | panaton |
| Instrumental | panajenon | panajeynon | panačynon |
| Locative | panajoton | panajyton | panaciwon |
| Adlative | panajáson | panajýson | panačun |
| Delative | panajádon | panajýdon | panačynon |
If the adjective falls after the noun, it never use the definite declension, and the article appears before the noun:
- ó mila okelav = the beloved woman
Comparison
There are two degrees of comparison: the comparative form and the superlative form:
They are formed by adding prefixes to the normal form of the adjective:
- Comparative: add pu- (mantaining the -): dén ‣ pu-dén
- Superlative: add saj- (mantaining the -): dén ‣ saj-dén
The second term of the comparison for comparative form is introduced by ča:
- lak mila pu-lán ča šik ér: this woman is more beautiful than that one
Verbs
Verbs have a rich system of conjugation. There are one infinitival form, 3 participles, 4 moods and at least 5 tenses in the indicative mood. Verbs do conjugate according to the person, with different endings for each person, in singular, plural and dual. Each form has a passive counterpart, because there is a separated passive conjugation.
Verbs are divided in two conjugation patterns, depending on their infinitival endings:
- 1st conjugation = -uč
- 2nd conjugation = -or
By dropping these endings we'll get the verbal root, basis of verbal conjugation.
Infinitive
This is the infinitival form, that you'll find in dictionaries.
We'll use two sample verbs, to show the conjugation:
| to Love | to Eat |
|---|---|
| Keluč | Setor |
Participles
Verbs have three participles: present participle, past participle, and future participle, which doesn't exist in English, but express the same meaning of the other two participles but in the future.
| Present | Past | Future |
|---|---|---|
| kelav | okelav | tekelav |
| setav | osetav | tesetav |
The past participle has an active meaning; osetav doesn't mean that has been eaten, but which has eaten.
Indicative
The indicative mood is the mood of reality, that shows happenings, tales, indications, etc. It has 5 tenses. Two tenses are simple, three tenses add prefixes.
Present
| Person | Keluč | Setor |
|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | kelu | setu |
| 2nd sing. | keluc | setec |
| 3rd sing. | kele | sete |
| 1st plu. | kelun | seten |
| 2nd plu. | keluj | setej |
| 3rd plu. | keluk | setek |
| 1st dual | kelune | setene |
| 2nd dual | keluje | seteje |
| 3rd dual | keluke | seteke |
Past
The past tense marks an action, occured in the past. It is formed by adding the infix -uv- for the 1st conjugation or -ev for the 2nd conjugation, and then the present endings of the 2nd conjugation, except for the 3rd person in singular, which adds nothing.
| Person | Keluč | Setor |
|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | keluvu | setevu |
| 2nd sing. | keluvec | setevec |
| 3rd sing. | keluv | setev |
| 1st plu. | keluven | seteven |
| 2nd plu. | keluvej | setevej |
| 3rd plu. | keluvek | setevek |
| 1st dual | keluvene | setevene |
| 2nd dual | keluveje | seteveje |
| 3rd dual | keluveke | seteveke |
Future
The future tense marks an action, which will occur in the future. It is formed by adding the infix -us- for the 1st conjugation or -es for the 2nd conjugation, and then the present endings of the 2nd conjugation, and by adding the prefix te(k)- before the main root.
| Person | Keluč | Setor |
|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | tekelusu | tesetesu |
| 2nd sing. | tekelusec | tesetesec |
| 3rd sing. | tekeluse | tesetese |
| 1st plu. | tekelusen | tesetesen |
| 2nd plu. | tekelusej | tesetesej |
| 3rd plu. | tekelusek | tesetesek |
| 1st dual | tekelusene | tesetesene |
| 2nd dual | tekeluseje | teseteseje |
| 3rd dual | tekeluseke | teseteseke |
Plusquamperfect
The plusquamperfect tense marks an action, occured in the past of another past action. It is formed by adding the prefix o(k)- to the forms of the past tense.
| Person | Keluč | Setor |
|---|---|---|
| 1st sing. | okeluvu | osetevu |
| 2nd sing. | okeluvec | osetevec |
| 3rd sing. | okeluv | osetev |
| 1st plu. | okeluven | oseteven |
| 2nd plu. | okeluvej | osetevej |
| 3rd plu. | okeluvek | osetevek |
| 1st dual | okeluvene | osetevene |
| 2nd dual | okeluveje | oseteveje |
| 3rd dual | okeluveke | oseteveke |
