Svanniskar morphology
Svannískar is a heavily inflecting language. Nouns inflect for five cases in two numbers, subdivided into the characteristic Germanic "strong" and "weak classes". Verbs conjugate for three persons and two numbers in two tenses and three moods. Like other Germanic languages, Svannískar has a number of classes of "strong" verbs (those with internal ablaut) similar to those of German, for example. Adjectives have both "strong" and "weak" declensions also, and have a total of sixty inflections (though some of these are the same, e.g. the weak feminine nominative and instrumental singulars).
Nominal Morphology
Svannískar is a richly inflected language. Each noun inflects for one of five cases in two numbers. Nouns are divided into strong and weak classes.
Nominative Case
The nominative case indicates the subject of a verb. In English:
- I run.
- It was given.
Accusative Case
The accusative case in its most basic sense indicates the direct object of a verb. In English:
- I gave it.
The accusative case may also be used with a preposition of motion to indicate motion towards:
- I run to it.
Finally, the accusative may also be used as the subject of an infinitive clause:
- I told you to give it to her.
Dative Case
The dative case in its most basic sense indicates the indirect object of a verb. In English:
- I gave it to her.
The dative case may also be used with a preposition of location to indicate location within:
- The mouse is in the box.
Finally, the dative case may be used to describe the agent of a passive verb.
- The cake was made by me.
Genitive Case
The genitive case in its most basic sense indicates possession or origin. In English:
- It is mine.
- The United States of America are political divisions.
The genitive case may also be used with a preposition of motion to indicate motion from:
- I went away from the school.
Finally, the genitive may be used to describe a divided whole (the partitive genitive):
- One of the soldiers came into the room.
Instrumental Case
The instrumental case in its most basic sense indicates means. In English:
- I sprayed the wall with paint.
The instrumental case may also be used with a variety of prepositions to indicate accompaniment or simultaneity:
- I walked with you.
- During the run, I met her.
Finally, the instrumental may be used to compare nouns or adjectives:
- "I wandered lonely as a cloud."
Gender
Nouns in Svannískar belong to one of three grammatical genders: masculine, feminine, or neuter. Most of the time, words with natural gender have the same grammatical gender (e.g. "man" is masculine), but there are exceptions. Each gender has at least two declension patterns, one or more weak and one or more strong. Nouns are classified by stem vowel (or occaisionally consonant), e.g. a-stems, i-stems, etc.
Strong Declension Patterns
Strong nouns of the following stems are declined as follows:
Masculine a-stems
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | -ar | -os |
| Acc | -er | -om |
| Dat | -a | -am |
| Gen | -a | -an |
| Ins | *-i | -am |
The instrumental singular form causes i-umlaut (see above). Sample noun: wólfar, wólfer, sa (m., wolf)
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | wólf-ar | wólf-os |
| Gen | wólf-er | wólf-om |
| Dat | wólf-a | wólf-am |
| Acc | wólf-a | wólf-an |
| Ins | wǿlf-i | wólf-am |
Masculine i-stems
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | *-ir | *-ir |
| Gen | *-isa | -ejon |
| Dat | -e | *-i |
| Acc | *-in | *-in |
| Ins | *-i | *-i |
Each form marked with an asterix causes i-umlaut. Sample noun: wýrmir, wýrmisa, sa (m., worm)
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | wýrm-ir | wýrm-ir |
| Gen | wýrm-isa | wúrm-ejon |
| Dat | wúrm-e | wýrm-i |
| Acc | wýrm-in | wýrm-in |
| Ins | wýrm-i | wýrm-i |
Masculine u-stems
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | -u | *-iwir |
| Gen | -ør | -uwon |
| Dat | -æ | *-ymir |
| Acc | -un | -un |
| Ins | -æ | *-ymir |
Each form marked with an asterix causes i-umlaut. Sample noun: gávlu, gávlør, sa (m., gable)
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | gávl-u | gǽvliwir |
| Gen | gávl-ør | gávl-uwon |
| Dat | gávl-æ | gǽvl-ymir |
| Acc | gávl-un | gávl-un |
| Ins | gávl-æ | gǽvl-ymir |
Neuter a-stems
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | -am | -u |
| Gen | -er | -om |
| Dat | -a | -am |
| Acc | -am | -u |
| Ins | *-i | -am |
The instrumental singular form causes i-umlaut. Sample noun: hósam, hóser, þat (n., house)
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | hós-am | hós-u |
| Gen | hós-er | hós-om |
| Dat | hós-a | hós-am |
| Acc | hós-am | hós-u |
| Ins | hǿs-i | hós-am |
Neuter r-stems
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | -ar | -aru |
| Gen | -ares | -arom |
| Dat | -ara | -aram |
| Acc | -ar | -aru |
| Ins | -ara | -aram |
Sample Noun: gǽtar, gǽtares, þat (n., goat)
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | gǽt-ar | gǽt-aru |
| Gen | gǽt-ares | gǽt-arom |
| Dat | gǽt-ara | gǽt-aram |
| Acc | gǽt-ar | gǽt-aru |
| Ins | gǽt-ara | gǽt-aram |
Feminine u-stems
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | -u | -or |
| Gen | -or | -om |
| Dat | -u | -om |
| Acc | -o | -on |
| Ins | -u | -om |
Sample noun: hándu, hándor, so (f., hand)
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | hánd-u | hánd-or |
| Gen | hánd-or | hánd-om |
| Dat | hánd-u | hánd-om |
| Acc | hánd-o | hánd-on |
| Ins | hánd-u | hánd-om |
Weak Declension Patterns
Weak nouns of the following declension patterns are declined as follows:
Masculine a-stems
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | -ar | -æ |
| Gen | -er | -æno |
| Dat | -esma | -æmir |
| Acc | -ano | -an |
| Ins | -o | -æmir |
Sample noun: Gúþar, Gúþer, sa (m., Goth, a member of the East Germanic tribe)
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | Gúþ-ar | Gúþ-æ |
| Gen | Gúþ-er | Gúþ-æno |
| Dat | Gúþ-esma | Gúþ-æmir |
| Acc | Gúþ-ano | Gúþ-an |
| Ins | Gúþo | Gúþ-æmir |
Feminine o-stems
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | -o | -or |
| Gen | -esor | -æro |
| Dat | -æ | -æmir |
| Acc | -o | -or |
| Ins | -æ | -æmir |
Sample noun: dǿro, dǿresor, so (f., door)
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | dǿr-o | dǿr-or |
| Gen | dǿr-esor | dǿr-æro |
| Dat | dǿr-æ | dǿr-æmir |
| Acc | dǿr-o | dǿr-or |
| Ins | dǿr-æ | dǿr-æmir |
Neuter a-stems
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | -a | -o |
| Gen | -er | -æro |
| Dat | -esma | -æmir |
| Acc | -a | -o |
| Ins | -o | -æmir |
Sample noun: hǽrta, hǽrter, þat (n., heart)
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | hǽrt-a | hǽrt-o |
| Gen | hǽrt-er | hǽrt-æro |
| Dat | hǽrt-esma | hǽrt-æmir |
| Acc | hǽrt-a | hǽrt-o |
| Ins | hǽrt-o | hǽrt-æmir |
Verbal Morphology
Svannískar's verbs inflect for a great many things. Each verb has four principle parts: infinitive, first person singular preterite indicative, first person plural preterite indicative, and past participle. Each stem has a number of things derived from it:
- 1. present indicative, participle, imperative, and subjunctive.
- 2. all singular preterite indicative forms.
- 3. all preterite plural indicative and preterite subjunctive forms.
- 4. all forms of the past participle, and any derived forms.
Strong Verbs
Some verbs in Svannískar are classified as strong verbs, characterized by an internal vowel shift (ablaut) in principal parts 2-4. There are three classes of strong verbs, characterized by the end of their ablaut pattern.
- I: a > æ > i > i (i-stems)
- II: o > ø > u >u (u-stems)
- III: i(l,r,m,n) > a(l,r,m,n) > u(l,r,m,n) > u(l,r,m,n) (consonant-stems; C-stems)
- IV: i > y > u > u (y-stems)
Weak Verbs
Most verbs in Svannískar are classified as weak verbs, which lack the internal vowel shift. Weak verbs have a single set of conjugation endings for each tense.
Preterite-Present Verbs
A very few verbs in Svannískar (notably máġan, "be able" and skállan "hope, wish") behave in the present tense as if they were the preterites of strong verbs, and their plural present indicatives are the same as all of their preterite forms. Preterite-present verbs have different principal parts from other verbs:
- 1. Infinitive
- 2. First person singular, present indicative
- 3. First person plural, present indicative
- 4. First person singular, preterite indicative
For example, the principle parts of máġan: máġan, mǽġ, míġum, míġ.
Indicative Mood
The indicative mood is used to make factual statements, tell fictional stories, and to quote another person. The indicative mood is the default mood, and is used in the vast majority of cases where a verb is used.
- I run.
- John walked to school that day.
- "He said, 'I love to swim.'"
Subjunctive Mood
The subjunctive mood is much less common. It is used to express contrafactual ideas and thoughts, as well as to make indirect statements, to express possibility or wish, and the like. The subjunctive mood can also express exhortation (indirect commands).
- Had I time, I would help.
- I wish I that I could help.
- Let them come.
Imperative Mood
The imperative mood is used to give direct commands. It is generally considered impolite to use the imperative mood with one's elders or superiors.
- Come here.
- O come all ye faithful.
- Do as I say.
Present Tense
The present tense expresses action simultaneous to or closely following the speaking. Many modal auxiliary verbs have one meaning in the present tense and another one in the preterite, an important distinction to make.
- I walk.
- I am about to walk.
- I will walk.
Preterite Tense
The preterite tense expresses action prior to the speaking. It typically carries either an imperfect (used to) sense or a perfective (simple past) sense, but in older texts it is also often used where a more recent writer would use the modal perfect.
Modal Auxiliaries
The subjunctive forms of a number of verbs can be used with the infinitive or either participle of another verb to take on a secondary connotation, such as English will, would, can, could, and so on. Many of these verbs have different connotations depending on whether they are preterite or present tense forms. Many, such as skállan and máġan are preterite-present verbs, and many also have irregular preterites (wóld and skóld, for example). Here are some of the most common such verbs:
- máġan: can (present), could (preterite); plain meaning: to be able (to)
- háven: have [verb]ed (with past participle); plain meaning: to have
- wýllon: will (present), would (preterite); plain meaning: to want, wish
- skállan: shall (present), should (preterite); plain meaning: to want, wish (synonymous with wýllon)
Infinitive
The infinitive is equivalent to the English infinitive, though in translation the English "to" is not obligatory: ik wýllu fáran (I want to go) vs. ik wýllæ fáran (I will go). Infinitives in Svannískar may end in -an, -en, or -on.
Present Participle
The present participle is equivalent to the English present participle. As in English, it is used in the formation of the progressive tenses, but unlike English it also appears in the immediate future tense: ik ím fárandar (I am going) vs. ik fáru fárandar (I am going to go).
Past Participle
The past participle is equivalent to the English past participle. Like in English, it is used in the formation of the modal perfect tenses and the passive voice: ik hávu gefírtar (I have gone) vs. ik ím før-gewolttar (I am wished for).
Gerund
The gerund is equivalent to the English gerund. It is used as a verbal noun. It can also function as a defective supine form with verbs of motion, best translated by the infinitive: fáranþar íst góðar (running is good) vs. ik sándu þan fíhtanþa (I send them to fight--lit. "for fighting")
Strong Verb Conjugation
Strong verbs have three sets of present indicative conjugation endings depending on their infinitive ending, but otherwise share the same endings for each tense.
Present Indicative Conjugation
The present indicative is derived from first principal part. The present indicative conjugation of regular strong verbs is as follows:
| -an verbs | -en verbs | -on verbs | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Person | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
| 1st | -u | -am | -u | -am | -u | -om |
| 2nd | -ar | -aþ | -ær | -æþ | -or | -oþ |
| 3rd | -aþ | -and | -æþ | -and | -oþ | -ond |
Preterite Indicative Conjugation
The singular forms of the preterite indicative are derived from the second principal part and the plural forms from the third. The preterite indicative conjugation of all regular strong verbs is as follows:
| Person | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | -(-) | -um |
| 2nd | *-t | -uþ |
| 3rd | -(-) | -un |
*The stem of a verb assimilates voicing to that second person singular ending, e.g. *hǽvt > hǽft.
Present Subjunctive Conjugation
The present subjunctive of strong verbs is derived from the first principal part. The preterite indicative conjugation of all regular strong verbs is as follows:
| Person | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | -æ | -æm |
| 2nd | -ær | -æþ |
| 3rd | -æþ | -ænd |
Preterite Subjunctive Conjugation
The preterite subjunctive of strong verbs is derived from the third principal parts. The preterite subjunctive conjugation of all regular strong verbs is as follows:
| Person | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | -(-) | -um |
| 2nd | *-t | -uþ |
| 3rd | -(-) | -un |
*This form assimilates voicing as the preterite indicative.
Imperative Conjugation
The imperative of strong verbs has only two forms: second person singular and second person plural. It is derived from the first principal part. The imperative conjugation of all regular strong verbs is as follows:
| Person | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| 2nd | -a | -aþ |
Present Participle and Gerund
The present participle declines as a normal weak adjective, and the gerund as a strong masculine a-stem noun. They are derived by suffixing the following to the first principle part:
| Present Participle | Gerund | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -an | -en | -on | -an | -en | -on |
| -ándon | -ǽndon | -óndon | -ánþar | -ǽnþar | -ónþar |
Weak Verb Conjugation
Weak verbs, which typically, though not always, end in -an, share the same endings for every tense. Regular weak verbs also have invariable stems.
Present Indicative Conjugation
The present indicative conjugation of all regular weak verbs is as follows:
| Person | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | -e | -em |
| 2nd | -er | -eþ |
| 3rd | -eþ | -end |
Preterite Indicative Conjugation
The preterite indicative conjugation of all regular weak verbs is as follows:
| Person | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | -ed | -edum |
| 2nd | -ett | -eduþ |
| 3rd | -ed | -edun |
Present Subjunctive Conjugation
The present subjunctive conjugation of all regular weak verbs is as follows:
| Person | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | -i | -im |
| 2nd | -ir | -iþ |
| 3rd | -iþ | -ind |
Preterite Subjunctive Conjugation
The preterite subjunctive conjugation of all regular weak verbs is as follows:
| Person | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | -id | -idum |
| 2nd | -itt | -iduþ |
| 3rd | -id | -idun |
Imperative Conjugation
The imperative conjugation of all regular weak verbs is as follows:
| Person | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| 2nd | -a | -aþ |
Present Participle and Gerund
The present participle ( which declines as a regular weak adjective) and the gerund (which declines as a strong masculine a-stem noun) are derived by suffixing the following:
| Present Participle | Gerund |
| -éndon | -énþar |
Pronominal Morphology
Svannískar has three personal (or inanimate) pronouns, all of which have irregular non-nomiantive forms, though they do often follow patterns in these. However, only the third person pronoun sa has instrumental case forms.
First Person Pronoun
The first person pronoun stands for the person(s) speaking. It is declined as follows:
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | ik | wir |
| Gen | min | únser |
| Dat | me | uns |
| Acc | mik | uns |
Second Person Pronoun
The second person pronoun stands for the person(s) being addressed by the speaker. It is declined as follows:
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | þu | jur |
| Gen | þin | ýwer |
| Dat | þe | yw |
| Acc | þik | yw |
Third Person Pronoun
The third person pronoun stands for a person or thing spoken of by the speaker. Sa and its forms describe nouns masculine in gender, so and its forms things feminine, and þat and its forms things neuter.
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
| Nom | sa | þæ | so | þor | þat | þo |
| Gen | þes | þéro | þéror | þǽro | þes | þéro |
| Dat | þésmo | þǽmir | þéræ | þǽmir | þésmo | þǽmir |
| Acc | þen | þan | þo | þor | þat | þo |
| Ins | þy | þǽmir | þéræ | þǽmir | þy | þǽmir |
Sa as Demonstrative
Technically speaking, sa, so, þat is a demonstrative adjective/pronoun, equivalent to English "this", "that", or "yon". It is a cognate to Old English se, Gothic sa.
Sa as Article
Sa, ever useful, has yet another use as the definite article. Sa and its forms may be used prior to a noun to ascribe definiteness to it the cat, the dog, and so on.
Pronoun Use
Like French or English, pronouns in Svannískar are always be used, though this is by convention rather than necessity. In some particularly ancient texts, however, the pronouns are dropped, based on the assumption that the reader would be able to differentiate the verb forms (which one might suppose would be true today, but it remains convention to use pronouns nonetheless).
Adjectival Morphology
Adjectives in Svannískar decline just as nouns or pronouns do. However, rather than being divided into classes of weak or strong adjectives the way nouns are, adjectives sometimes decline weak, sometimes strong. Adjectives decline weak if:
- ...they follow sa used as an article.
- ...they are a numeric adjective (except ǽnar, "one").
- ...they are the second (or third, fourth, etc.) adjective in a noun phrase.
- ...they are a present participle.
- ...they follow a conjugated verb.
- ...they are a comparative ending in -íron
The following adjectives never decline weak:
- Past participles
- ǽnar, ǽnu, ǽnam
- Possessive pronouns
- Superlatives in -ístar.
Strong Adjective Pattern
The following are the declension endings for adjectives declining strong.
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
| Nom | -ar | -æ | -o | -or | -a | -o |
| Gen | -er | -æro | -ero | -æro | -er | -æro |
| Dat | -esma | -æmir | -æ | -æmir | -esma | -æmir |
| Acc | -ano | -an | -o | -or | -a | -o |
| Ins | -o | -æmir | -æ | -æmir | -esma | -æmir |
Sample adjective: góðar, góðo, góða (good)
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
| Nom | góð-ar | góð-æ | góð-o | góð-or | góð-a | góð-o |
| Gen | góð-er | góð-æro | góð-ero | góð-æro | góð-er | góð-æro |
| Dat | góð-esma | góð-æmir | góð-æ | góð-æmir | góð-esma | góð-æmir |
| Acc | góð-ano | góð-an | góð-o | góð-or | góð-a | góð-o |
| Ins | góð-o | góð-æmir | góð-æ | góð-æmir | góð-esma | góð-æmir |
Weak Adjective Pattern
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
| Nom | -on | -an | -on | -on | -o | -onu |
| Gen | *-in | -anam | -on | -onam | *-in | -onom |
| Dat | *-in | -num | -on | -um | *-in | -um |
| Acc | -anu | -anun | -onu | -onu | -o | -onu |
| Ins | *-in | -num | -on | -um | *-in | -um |
Forms marked with asterixes cause i-umlaut. Sample adjective: góðar, góðo, góða (good)
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
| Nom | góð-on | góð-an | góð-on | góð-on | góð-o | góð-onu |
| Gen | gǿð-in | góð-anam | góð-on | góð-onam | gǿð-in | góð-onom |
| Dat | gǿð-in | góð-num | góð-on | góð-um | gǿð-in | góð-um |
| Acc | góð-anu | góð-anun | góð-onu | góð-onu | góð-o | góð-onu |
| Ins | gǿð-in | góð-num | góð-on | góð-um | gǿð-in | góð-um |
Derivation
Some of the most common derivational suffixes in Svannískar:
- -dómar: -dom, denotes state or area (kyningdómar--kingdom)
- -árir: -er, denotes agent (havárir--possessor)
- -íron: -er, comparative of adjectives (brehtíron--brighter)
- -ístar: -est, superlative of adjectives (brehtístar--brightest)
- -fálðar: -fold, denotes multiplicity; forms collective nouns (kyningfálðar--kings (on the whole))
- -hǽdu: -hood, denotes state (kyninghǽdu--kingship)
- -ískar: -ish, -ic, denotes a language (Islandískar--Icelandic)
- -lǿsar: -less, denotes a lack (kyninglǿsar--kingless)
- -líkar: -like, denotes similarity (kyninglíkar--kingly, regal)
- -skápar: -ship, denotes state (kyningskápar--kingship)
- -súmar: -some, vague intensive (of adjectives)
- -tíġon: -ty, denotes state; vague intensive
- -áġar: -y, denotes similarity
