Cernelian/Nominals
Nominals in Cernelian are declinable word classes, including nouns, adjectives, numerals, or (demonstrative, personal, interrogative) pronouns. Unlike that of Finnish or Estonian that those have large number of grammatical cases (15 or 14), Cernelian has simplified it to 8 cases. Due to the influence of Slavic languages, Cernelian developed animacy.
Grammatical cases
There are 8 grammatical cases in Cernelian:
| Grammatical cases | Cernelian name | Usual endings (singular) | Usual meanings |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | nominatiw | -∅ | none |
| Accusative | akuzatiw | -ę, -∅ | (object) |
| Genitive | genitiw | -ę | (of, 's) |
| Dative | datiw | -ę, -ą | to |
| Locative | lokatiw | -so, -sie, -cho, -sze | in, on |
| Ablative | ablatiw | -sto, -ście | from |
| Instrumental | instrument | -łe, -le | from |
| Vocative | wokatiw | -so, -sie, -cho, -sze | (calling, -!) |
All of the grammatical case names has the alternative forms in -ę ptódziemo, e.g. nominatiwę ptódziemo.
Declensions
- 1st declension: Nominals ending in -o, and it is the largest group of nominal declension by number.
- 2nd declension: Nominals ending in -e, also as the soft variant of 1st declension.
- 3rd declension: Nominals ending in soft -∅.
- 4th declension: Nominals ending in hard -∅, including sonorants.
- 5th declension: Nominals ending in -ę or -ą (n-stem).
- Irregular nominals: Numerous nominals that declined irregularly, like long stems, s-stems, and consonantic stems uncovered in 4th declension.
Adjectives
Adjectives, like nouns, correspond to one of declension type, like toso would end in -o, so it must classified as declension type 1A. However, adjectives has both animate and inanimate declensions (anim. tę vs. inan. toso), as a result of Finnic syncretism in accusative and genitive cases further influenced by Slavic. Adjectives are also must agree in case and number with the noun they modify, for example nominative syrz toło "big house", but dative syrzę tołoję and plural syrze toło (nominative plurals are usually indistinguishable from singular).
Comparative of adjectives end in -ępo (-iępo after velars) in the 1st declension, -iępo in 2nd and 3rd, -ypo (-ipo after velars) in 4th. It placed to the weak grade (toso, tępo "rare, rarer"). Superlatives are formed by prefixing naj- to the comparative (tępo, najtępo "rarer, rarest").
Agreements
| Singular | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | syrz toło "the big house" |
syrze toło "the big houses" | |
| Accusative | Inanimate | syrz toło "the big house (obj.)" |
syrze toło "the big houses (obj.)" |
| Animate | syrzę mią "the big man (obj.)" |
syrze mie "the big men (obj.)" | |
| Genitive | syrzę tołę "of the big house" |
syrzedzię tołodzię "of the big houses" | |
| Dative | syrzę tołoję "to the big house" |
syrzejję tolą "to the big houses" | |
| Locative | syrzszo tołoso "in the big house" |
syrzejszo tolocho "in the big houses" | |
| Ablative | syrzsto tołosto "from the big house" |
syrzejsto tolosto "from the big houses" | |
| Instrumental | syrzło tołoło "from the big house" |
syrzejło toloło "from the big houses" | |
| Vocative | syrzszo tołoso! "the big house!" |
syrze toło "the big houses!" | |
Numerals
| Number (in nominative) |
Genitive | Dative | Locative | Ablative | Instrumental | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | isz | icię | iciesie | icieście | iciele | |
| ję | jęcię | jęciesie | jęcieście | jęciele | ||
| 2 | kósz | kocię | kocioso | kociosto | kocioło | |
| cienię | ciesię | ciesioso | ciesiosto | ciesioło | ||
| 3 | kiełmie | kiełmiedzię | kiełmą | kiełmiocho | kiełmiosto | kiełmioło |
| kiełmo | kiełmędzię | kiełmęcią | kiełmędzioso | kiełmędziosto | kiełmędzioło | |
| 4 | niele | nielę | nielesie | nieleście | nielele | |
| nielędzię | nielęcią | nielędzioso | nielędziosto | nielędzioło | ||
| 5 | wiś | widzię | wicię | widziesie | widzieście | widziele |
| widzie | widziędzię | widzięcią | widziędziesie | widziędzieście | widziędziele | |
| 6 | kiś | kidzię | kicię | kidziesie | kidzieście | kidziele |
| kidzie | kidziędzię | kidzięcią | kidziędzioso | kidziędziosto | kidziędzioło | |
| 7 | sią | sisiemię | sisiemiesię | sisiemiesie | sisiemieście | sisiemiele |
| sisiemie | sisiemiędzię | sisiemięcią | sisiemiędziesie | sisiemiędzieście | sisiemiędziele | |
| 8 | kocioso | kociosę | kocioso | kociosto | kocioło | |
| kociędzię | kocięcią | kociędzioso | kociędziosto | kociędzioło | ||
| 9 | wcioso | wciosę | wcioso | wciosto | wcioło | |
| wciędzię | wcięcią | wciędzioso | wciędziosto | wciędzioło | ||
| 10 | częmię | częmienię | częmienią | częmieniesie | częmienieście | częmieniele |
| częmienie | częmieniędzię | częmienią | częmieniędziesie | częmieniędzieście | częmieniędziele | |
| 11 | iszciasto | icięciasto | iciesieciasto | icieścieciasto | icieleciasto | |
| jęciasto | jęcięciasto | jęciesieciasto | jęcieścieciasto | jęcieleciasto | ||
Words in the top rows represent cardinal numbers (one, two, three...), while in the bottom rows represent ordinal numbers (first, second, third...). Most numerals, except niele "four", kocioso "eight", wcioso "nine", and częmie "ten" (all of them cardinal only), are often declined irregularly and always invariable in numbers.
Teens of the number 10 are formed by the suffix -ciasto to the numbers, a remnant of Proto-Finnic *... toicta kümmenta, the Cernelian equivalent would be ... ciasię częmienię (the partitive case was replaced by the genitive, the suffix itself was a remnant of the partitive). Thus forming (from 11 to 19) iszciasto, kószciasto, kiełmieciasto, nieleciasto, wiściasto, kiściasto, siąciasto, kociosociasto, and wciosociasto (ordinal numbers are formed as the cardinal numbers does, as it happen in jęciasto "eleventh").
Specific alterations
- In the 3rd and 4th declensions (except sonorant stems), last vowels -ę- and -o- becomes -ą- and -ó- (póch : gen. pochię "thick", chącz : chęczę "breath").
- In some nouns that contain final Proto-Cernelian yers (ь/ъ), the vowel -(i)e- sometimes deleted (čьvь : čьvę → czew : czwie "stone").
- Endings containing initial -i- becomes -y- after consonants c, cz, dz, dż, rz, and sz (icze : dat. pl. iczyję "age").
- Like Finnish and Estonian, consonant gradation (involving lenition) are frequent in Cernelian. However, it is not possible to predict the ending whose affected by gradation (weak grade), due to syllable structure changes. This is the gradation table:
| Strong grade (unaffected) |
Weak grade (affected) | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Plain | Palatal | Plain | Palatal |
| k | cz/c | ∅/g | ż/dz |
| t | ć/ci | ∅/d | dź/dzi |
| p | p/pi | ∅/w | w/wi |
| s/ch | ś/si/sz | ∅ | j/i/∅ |
- The weak grades g, d, and w are used after consonants, although due to Slavic metathesis the original weak grades sometimes still exist (*oldak → łodo, not *ła). The nature of palatal weak grade of s varies: j are used intervocalically, i used after the rest of consonants, and ∅ (just succeeding vowels, i → y) only used after consonants explained in point 3 including l.
- Palatalizations of stem's final consonant (jołk-o "foot" → jołdz-oso, jołc-ę)
- Unless noted, letters are palatalized as -Ci(V)- (/ʲ(j)/).
- Letters orthographically containing acute accent (like ć, ź, ś, ...) are written as above, except the accent was removed (ś → -si(V)-).
- ch → sz.
- d → dź/dziV.
- g → cz used in endings affected by first palatalization, otherwise dz.
- k → cz used in endings affected by first palatalization, otherwise c
- ł → l.
- r → rz.
- t → ć/ciV.
- Endings affected by first palatalization are in red, while affected by second palatalization are in green.
- Before non-palatalized (including historically ones) consonants, *ě and *e becomes a and (i)o (*jȅko : pl. *jȅ → joko : je "time").
- Cernelian exhibits final obstruent devoicing that not reflected in the orthography, see more at Cernelian/Phonetics and orthography.
