Senjecas copula list

Pronunciation table

पेमु॓को peműko (labial)								रीसु॓कॊ riisűko (dental)								मुइतु॓को muitűko (alveolar)								भइनु॓को vainűko (palatal)							च्युस्वे॓नोस् ṡ̨uuše̋nos (vowels)								नि॓थो च्युस्वे॓नोस् nı̋þo ṡ̨uuše̋nos (weak vowels)
p	b	f	v	m̃	m			t	d	þ	ð	ɫ	l			ṡ	ż	s	z	r	n			k	g	x	ƣ	h	ȝ			t̬	t̨			i	e	a	ɔ	o	u			ĭ	ĕ	ŭ
प	ब	फ	भ	म़	म			त	द	थ	ध	ल़	ल			च	ज	स	स़	र	न			क	ग	क़	ग़	ह	य			त्व	त्य			इ	ए	अ	ऒ	ओ	उ			तं	तऺ	तॅ
/p/	/b/	/ɸ/	/β/	/m̥/	/m/			/t/	/d/	/θ/	/ð/	/l̥/	/l/			/ʦ/	/ʣ/	/s/	/z/	/ɾ̥/	/n/			/k/	/g/	/ç/	/ʝ/	/j̊/	/j/			/tʷ/	/tʲ/			/i/	/e/	/ä/	/ɒ/	/o/	/u/			/ɪ/	/ɛ/	/ʊ/

Glossing abbreviations

1s/p = 1st person singular/plural	ABL = ablative suffix	COL = collective	F = feminine	INT = intensive prefix	PRV = privative prefix	SUP = supine
2s/p = 2nd person singular/plural	ABS = absolutive (an unmarked modifying adjective)	DES = desiderative	FRQ = frequentative	LAT = lative suffix	PST = past	TRZ = transitivizer
3 = 3rd person	ADV = adverb	DIM = diminutive	FUT = future	LOC = locative suffix	REV = reversive	VOC = vocative particle
A(.s/p) = accusative (singular/plural)	AG = agent	ELIS = elision	IMP = imperative	M = masculine	Q = interrogative particle
G(.s/p) = genitive (singular/plural)	AP = agent (active) participle	ELT = elative	INC = inchoative	OCC = occupation suffix	QUOT = direct quotation
N(.s/p) = nominative (singular/plural)	AUG = augmentative	EP = epenthesis	IND = indicative	PP = patient (past) participle	RPR = recent perfective
V(.s/p) = vocative (singular/plural)	CAUS = causative	EQU = equative degree	INS = instrument	PRF = perfect	SBJ = subjunctive

• A copula is a word or phrase that links the subject of a sentence to a subject complement. In Senjecas they are verbs.

Copulas of existence

• 1. ésa ए॓स - be (permanent)
• That man is my father.
• a-m̃ı̋ı̋ru mu-tááta ésa:

a=m̃ı̋ı̋r-u	mu=táát-a	és-a
that=man-N.s	my=father-N.s	be-IND

• 2. vűűa भू॓अ - be (transient)
• That man is my friend.
• a-m̃ı̋ı̋ru mu-vı̋lu vűűa:

a=m̃ı̋ı̋r-u	mu=vı̋l-u	vűű-a
that=man-N.s	my=friend-N.s	be-IND

Copulas of change

• This concept can be expressed only by the verb ı̋la.

• 3. ı̋la इ॓ल - become
• He became sick while on the journey.
• méti taƣős éna éȝu da̋mu e-ı̋la:

méti	taƣ-ős	éna	éȝ-u	da̋m-u	e=ı̋l-a
while	journey-G.s	on	3-N.s	sick-N.s	PST=become-IND

• 4. ı̋la इ॓ल - fall
• She fell victim to his charms.
• ii-éȝ' ur-eȝu-mooȝa̋s ha lı̋tu e-ı̋la:

ii=éȝ-'	ur=eȝu=mooȝ-a̋s	ha	lı̋t-u	e=ı̋l-a
F=3-EL	M=his=charm-G.s	because.of	victim-N.s	PST=become-IND

• 5. ı̋la इ॓ल - grow
• I grow weary listening to your complaints.
• tu-ɔ̋bon a̋a̋m̃antu mu le̋e̋du ı̋la:

tu=ɔ̋b-on	a̋a̋m̃-a-ntu-Ø	m-u	le̋e̋d-u	ı̋l-a
your=complaint-A.p	listen.to-IND-AP-ABS	1s-N	weary-N.s	become-IND

• 6. ı̋la इ॓ल - prove
• Eating the plant proved fatal to him.
• műűlom e̋dantu eȝús o ne̋s̈u e-ı̋la:

műűl-om	e̋d-a-nt-u	eȝ-ús	o	ne̋s̈-u	e=ı̋l-a
plant-A.s	eat-IND-AP-SUP	3-G.s	to	fatal-N.s	PST=become-IND

• 7. ı̋la इ॓ल - turn
• In the autumn the leaves turn red and brown.
• va̋los ipa̋s re̋uðosk̬e ba̋dosk̬e ı̋la:

va̋l-os	ip-a̋s	re̋uð-os=k̬e	ba̋d-os=k̬e	ı̋l-a
leaf-N.p	autumn-G.s	red-N.p=and	brown-N.p=and	become-IND

Copulas of perception

• 8. műȝa मु॓य - feel
• This blanket feels so soft.
• i-da̋ko kéþu n̨űmo műȝa:

i=da̋k-o	kéþu	n̨űm-o	műȝ-a
this=blanket-N.s	so	soft-N.s	feel-IND

• 9. ka̋ȝa क॓य - seem
• That lady's eyes seem blue.
• a-anderűs t̬a̋los kőőxos ka̋ȝa:

a=ander-űs	t̬a̋l-os	kőőx-os	ka̋ȝ-a
that=lady-G.s	eye-N.p	blue-N.p	seem-IND

• 10. še̋ga स्वे॓ग - smell
• This egg didn't smell this bad yesterday.
• hesaha̋s i-tőőlo toátu pűűo e-še̋ga ne:

hes.ah-a̋s	i=tőől-o	toátu	pűű-o	e=še̋g-a	ne
yester.day-G.s	this=egg-N.s	so	rotten-N.s	PST=smell-IND	not

• 11. še̋na स्वे॓न - sound
• He didn't sound sick when last we spoke.
• éȝu da̋mu e-še̋na ne—méti m̃us nĭnév̈i e-sa̋m̃a:

éȝ-u	da̋m-u	e=še̋n-a	ne	méti	m̃-us	nĭ~név=vi	e=sa̋m̃-a
3-N.s	sick-N.s	PST=sound-IND	not	when	1p-N	EL~recent=ADV	PST=speak-IND

• 12. t̨a̋a̋ta त्या॓त - taste
• This soup tastes delicious.
• i-ȝőőno da̋lo t̨a̋a̋ta:

i=ȝőőn-o	da̋l-o	t̨a̋a̋t-a
this=soup-N.s	delicious-N.s	taste-IND

Copulas of description

• 13. ka̋ȝa क॓य - appear
• The poor dog appears frightened.
• bűɫ̨e na̋ȝe tűge ka̋ȝa:

bűɫ̨e-Ø	na̋ȝ-e	tűg-e	ka̋ȝ-a
poor-ABS	dog-N.s	frightened-N.s	appear-IND

• 14. ka̋ȝa क॓य - look
• No, I think it looks sick.
• ne̋. mu éȝem da̋me ka̋ȝu na̋ma:

ne̋	m-u	éȝ-em	da̋m-e	ka̋ȝ-u	na̋m-a
1s-N	3-A.s	sick-N.s	look-SUP	think-IND

• 15. gőþa गो॓थ - resemble
• The water flowing off the roof resembles a waterfall.
• kőrom áfa da̋a̋ante a̋a̋me ȝűko gőþa:

kőr-om	áfa	da̋a̋-a-nte-Ø	a̋a̋m-e	ȝűk-o	gőþ-a
roof-A.s	off	flow-IND-AP-ABS	water-N.s	waterfall-N.s	resemble-IND

Copulas of identity

• 16. pa̋ra प॓र - equal
• Two plus two equals four.
• d̬ők̬e d̬ők̬e na̋a̋l pa̋ra:

d̬ő=k̬e	d̬ő=k̬e	na̋a̋l	pa̋r-a
two=and	two=and	four	equal-IND

• 17. te̋va ते॓भ - prove
• His statement proved incorrect.
• eȝu-tőso alm̃e̋e̋ro e-te̋va:

eȝu=tős-o	al=m̃e̋e̋r-o	e=te̋v-a
his=statement-N.s	PRV=correct-N.s	PST=prove-IND

Copulas of continuance

• This concept can be expressed only by the verb se̋e̋ra.

• 18. se̋e̋ra सै॓र - keep
• Keep still or you'll open the wound.
• k̬ı̋ı̋lu seere̋ȝa. m̃o tu m̃a̋a̋on u-lűra:

k̬ı̋ı̋l-u	seer-e̋ȝa	m̃o	t-u	m̃a̋a̋-on	u=lűr-a
still-N.s	keep-SBJ	or	2s-N	wound-A.s	FUT=open-IND

• 19. se̋e̋ra सै॓र - remain
• The hare remained still and the fox didn't see it.
• ṡe̋ṡe k̬ı̋ı̋l' e-se̋e̋ra. da pűke éȝem e-na̋ka ne:

ṡe̋ṡ-e	k̬ı̋ı̋l-'	e=se̋e̋r-a	da	pűk-e	éȝ-em	e=na̋k-a	ne
hare-N.s	still-EL	PST-remain-IND	and	fox-N.s	3-A.s	PST=see-IND	not

• 20. se̋e̋ra सै॓र - stay
• We lit a fire and stayed warm.
• m̃us e-a̋a̋þa. da te̋pus e-se̋e̋ra:

m̃-us	e=a̋a̋þ-a	da	te̋p-us	e=se̋e̋r-a
1p-N	PST=light.a.fire-IND	and	warm-N.p	PST=stay-IND