User:Masako/sandbox

From FrathWiki
Jump to navigationJump to search

tlika

tlika
nata (nta) tlaka (ta) naka (na)
nata
relative		 tlaka
man; male		 naka
woman; female
hya- hyanta
grandparent		 hyata
grandfather		 hyana
grandmother
o- onta
parent		 ota
father		 ona
mother
ue- uenta
parent's sibling		 ueta
uncle		 uena
aunt
-ku ntaku
sibling		 taku
brother		 naku
sister
-hi ntahi
child		 tahi
son; boy		 nahi
daughter; girl
-hya ntahya
grandchild		 tahya
grandson		 nahya
granddaughter
-ue ntaue
cousin		 taue
male cousin		 naue
female cousin
-hue ntahue
nibling		 tahue
nephew		 nahue
niece

pa'a

na'o ta'o ha'o
plosive
pana (rain) 		pa ta ka
nasal
maua (flower) 		ma na nya
affricate
tlatsa (fire) 		tsa tla
continuant
honu (turtle) 		sa ha la
semivowel
yasa (wind) 		ua ya a

Amal syllables

a

- - pat pad pak pag pam pan pas pash pah paq paw pay pal par
- - bat bad bak bag bam ban bas bash bah baq baw bay bal bar
tap tab - - tak tag tam tan tas tash tah taq taw tay tal tar
dap dab - - dak dag dam dan das dash dah daq daw day dal dar
kap kab kat kad - kag kam kan kas kash kah kaq kaw kay kal kar
gap gab gat gad gak - gam gan gas gash gah gaq gaw gay gal gar
map mab mat mad mak mag - man mas mash mah maq maw may mal mar
nap nab nat nad nak nag nam nan nas nash nah naq naw nay nal nar
sap sab sat sad sak sag sam san - sash sah saq saw say sal sar
shap shab shat shad shak shag sham shan shas - shah shaq shaw shay shal shar
hap hab hat had hak hag ham han has hash - haq haw hay hal har
qap qab qat qad qak qag qam qan qas qash qah qaq qaw qay qal qar
wap wab wat wad wak wag wam wan was wash wah waq - way wal war
yap yab yat yad yak yag yam yan yas yash yah yaq yaw - yal yar
lap lab lat lad lak lag lam lan las lash lah laq law lay lal lar
rap rab rat rad rak rag ram ran ras rash rah raq raw ray ral rar

e

- - pet ped pek peg pem pen pes pesh peh peq pew pey pel per
- - bet bed bek beg bem ben bes besh beh beq bew bey bel ber
tep teb - - tek teg tem ten tes tesh teh teq tew tey tel ter
dep deb - - dek deg dem den des desh deh deq dew dey del der
kep keb ket ked - keg kem ken kes kesh keh keq kew key kel ker
gep geb get ged gek - gem gen ges gesh geh geq gew gey gel ger
mep meb met med mek meg - men mes mesh meh meq mew mey mel mer
nep neb net ned nek neg nem nen nes nesh neh neq new ney nel ner
sep seb set sed sek seg sem sen - sesh seh seq sew sey sel ser
shep sheb shet shed shek sheg shem shen shes - sheh sheq shew shey shel sher
hep heb het hed hek heg hem hen hes hesh - heq hew hey hel her
qep qeb qet qed qek qeg qem qen qes qesh qeh qeq qew qey qel qer
wep web wet wed wek weg wem wen wes wesh weh weq - wey wel wer
yep yeb yet yed yek yeg yem yen yes yesh yeh yeq yew - yel yer
lep leb let led lek leg lem len les lesh leh leq lew ley lel ler
rep reb ret red rek reg rem ren res resh reh req rew rey rel rer

i

- - pit pid pik pig pim pin pis pish pih piq piw piy pil pir
- - bit bid bik big bim bin bis bish bih biq biw biy bil bir
tip tib - - tik tig tim tin tis tish tih tiq tiw tiy til tir
dip dib - - dik dig dim din dis dish dih diq diw diy dil dir
kip kib kit kid - kig kim kin kis kish kih kiq kiw kiy kil kir
gip gib git gid gik - gim gin gis gish gih giq giw giy gil gir
mip mib mit mid mik mig - min mis mish mih miq miw miy mil mir
nip nib nit nid nik nig nim nin nis nish nih niq niw niy nil nir
sip sib sit sid sik sig sim sin - sish sih siq siw siy sil sir
ship shib shit shid shik shig shim shin shis - shih shiq shiw shiy shil shir
hip hib hit hid hik hig him hin his hish - hiq hiw hiy hil hir
qip qib qit qid qik qig qim qin qis qish qih qiq qiw qiy qil qir
wip wib wit wid wik wig wim win wis wish wih wiq - wiy wil wir
yip yib yit yid yik yig yim yin yis yish yih yiq yiw - yil yir
lip lib lit lid lik lig lim lin lis lish lih liq liw liy lil lir
rip rib rit rid rik rig rim rin ris rish rih riq riw riy ril rir

u

- - put pud puk pug pum pun pus push puh puq puw puy pul pur
- - but bud buk bug bum bun bus bush buh buq buw buy bul bur
tup tub - - tuk tug tum tun tus tush tuh tuq tuw tuy tul tur
dup dub - - duk dug dum dun dus dush duh duq duw duy dul dur
kup kub kut kud - kug kum kun kus kush kuh kuq kuw kuy kul kur
gup gub gut gud guk - gum gun gus gush guh guq guw guy gul gur
mup mub mut mud muk mug - mun mus mush muh muq muw muy mul mur
nup nub nut nud nuk nug num nun nus nush nuh nuq nuw nuy nul nur
sup sub sut sud suk sug sum sun - sush suh suq suw suy sul sur
shup shub shut shud shuk shug shum shun shus - shuh shuq shuw shuy shul shur
hup hub hut hud huk hug hum hun hus hush - huq huw huy hul hur
qup qub qut qud quk qug qum qun qus qush quh quq quw quy qul qur
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
yup yub yut yud yuk yug yum yun yus yush yuh yuq yuw - yul yur
lup lub lut lud luk lug lum lun lus lush luh luq luw luy lul lur
rup rub rut rud ruk rug rum run rus rush ruh ruq ruw ruy rul rur

á

- - pát pád pák pág pám pán pás pásh páh páq páw páy pál pár
- - bát bád bák bág bám bán bás básh báh báq báw báy bál bár
táp táb - - ták tág tám tán tás tásh táh táq táw táy tál tár
dáp dáb - - dák dág dám dán dás dásh dáh dáq dáw dáy dál dár
káp káb kát kád - kág kám kán kás kásh káh káq káw káy kál kár
gáp gáb gát gád gák - gám gán gás gásh gáh gáq gáw gáy gál gár
máp máb mát mád mák mág - mán más másh máh máq máw máy mál már
náp náb nát nád nák nág nám nán nás násh náh náq náw náy nál nár
sáp sáb sát sád sák ság sám sán - sásh sáh sáq sáw sáy sál sár
sháp sháb shát shád shák shág shám shán shás - sháh sháq sháw sháy shál shár
háp háb hát hád hák hág hám hán hás hásh - háq háw háy hál hár
qáp qáb qát qád qák qág qám qán qás qásh qáh qáq qáw qáy qál qár
wáp wáb wát wád wák wág wám wán wás wásh wáh wáq - wáy wál wár
yáp yáb yát yád yák yág yám yán yás yásh yáh yáq yáw - yál yár
láp láb lát lád lák lág lám lán lás lásh láh láq láw láy lál lár
ráp ráb rát rád rák rág rám rán rás rásh ráh ráq ráw ráy rál rár

é

- - pét péd pék pég pém pén pés pésh péh péq péw péy pél pér
- - bét béd bék bég bém bén bés bésh béh béq béw béy bél bér
tép téb - - ték tég tém tén tés tésh téh téq téw téy tél tér
dép déb - - dék dég dém dén dés désh déh déq déw déy dél dér
kép kéb két kéd - kég kém kén kés késh kéh kéq kéw kéy kél kér
gép géb gét géd gék - gém gén gés gésh géh géq géw géy gél gér
mép méb mét méd mék még - mén més mésh méh méq méw méy mél mér
nép néb nét néd nék nég ném nén nés nésh néh néq néw néy nél nér
sép séb sét séd sék ség sém sén - sésh séh séq séw séy sél sér
shép shéb shét shéd shék shég shém shén shés - shéh shéq shéw shéy shél shér
hép héb hét héd hék hég hém hén hés hésh - héq héw héy hél hér
qép qéb qét qéd qék qég qém qén qés qésh qéh qéq qéw qéy qél qér
wép wéb wét wéd wék wég wém wén wés wésh wéh wéq - wéy wél wér
yép yéb yét yéd yék yég yém yén yés yésh yéh yéq yéw - yél yér
lép léb lét léd lék lég lém lén lés lésh léh léq léw léy lél lér
rép réb rét réd rék rég rém rén rés résh réh réq réw réy rél rér

í

- - pít píd pík píg pím pín pís písh píh píq píw píy píl pír
- - bít bíd bík bíg bím bín bís bísh bíh bíq bíw bíy bíl bír
típ tíb - - tík tíg tím tín tís tísh tíh tíq tíw tíy tíl tír
díp díb - - dík díg dím dín dís dísh díh díq díw díy díl dír
kíp kíb kít kíd - kíg kím kín kís kísh kíh kíq kíw kíy kíl kír
gíp gíb gít gíd gík - gím gín gís gísh gíh gíq gíw gíy gíl gír
míp míb mít míd mík míg - mín mís mísh míh míq míw míy míl mír
níp níb nít níd ník níg ním nín nís nísh níh níq níw níy níl nír
síp síb sít síd sík síg sím sín - sísh síh síq síw síy síl sír
shíp shíb shít shíd shík shíg shím shín shís - shíh shíq shíw shíy shíl shír
híp híb hít híd hík híg hím hín hís hísh - híq híw híy híl hír
qíp qíb qít qíd qík qíg qím qín qís qísh qíh qíq qíw qíy qíl qír
wíp wíb wít wíd wík wíg wím wín wís wísh wíh wíq - wíy wíl wír
yíp yíb yít yíd yík yíg yím yín yís yísh yíh yíq yíw - yíl yír
líp líb lít líd lík líg lím lín lís lísh líh líq líw líy líl lír
ríp ríb rít ríd rík ríg rím rín rís rísh ríh ríq ríw ríy ríl rír

ú

- - pút púd púk púg púm pún pús púsh púh púq púw púy púl púr
- - bút búd búk búg búm bún bús búsh búh búq búw búy búl búr
túp túb - - túk túg túm tún tús túsh túh túq túw túy túl túr
dúp dúb - - dúk dúg dúm dún dús dúsh dúh dúq dúw dúy dúl dúr
kúp kúb kút kúd - kúg kúm kún kús kúsh kúh kúq kúw kúy kúl kúr
gúp gúb gút gúd gúk - gúm gún gús gúsh gúh gúq gúw gúy gúl gúr
múp múb mút múd múk múg - mún mús músh múh múq múw múy múl múr
núp núb nút núd núk núg núm nún nús núsh núh núq núw núy núl núr
súp súb sút súd súk súg súm sún - súsh súh súq súw súy súl súr
shúp shúb shút shúd shúk shúg shúm shún shús - shúh shúq shúw shúy shúl shúr
húp húb hút húd húk húg húm hún hús húsh - húq húw húy húl húr
qúp qúb qút qúd qúk qúg qúm qún qús qúsh qúh qúq qúw qúy qúl qúr
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
yúp yúb yút yúd yúk yúg yúm yún yús yúsh yúh yúq yúw - yúl yúr
lúp lúb lút lúd lúk lúg lúm lún lús lúsh lúh lúq lúw lúy lúl lúr
rúp rúb rút rúd rúk rúg rúm rún rús rúsh rúh rúq rúw rúy rúl rúr

noun phrases

The basic noun phrase in Kala is PREPOSITION DETERMINER RELATIVE-CLAUSE NOUN DESCRIPTIVE-VERB. Depending on context, this is fairly predominant with a few exceptions

  • opinion-size-age-shape-color-origin-material-purpose Noun

ukum

Kala number English ordinal multiple fractional
na'o 1 one kina'o
first		 tina'o
once		 -
ueta'o 12 twelve kiueta'o
twelfth		 tiueta'o
twelve times		 iueta'o
a twelfth
yauema'o
yama'o		 54 fifty four kiyama'o
fifty fourth		 tiyama'o
54 times		 iyama'o
a fifty fourth
nyetsa'o 106 one hundred (and) six kinyetsa'o
106th		 tinyetsa'o
106 times		 inyetsa'o
a 106th
katle'o 7000 seven thousand kikatle'o
seven thousandth		 tikatle'o
7000 times		 ikatle'o
1/7000

genitive

singular plural
1 nai kai
2 tai ai
3 lai mai

{{col-begin}} {{col-break}} {{col-end}}

kata hangul

a e i o u
k 가 거 기 고 구
l 라 러 리 로 루
m 마 머 미 모 무
n 나 너 니 노 누
p 바 버 비 보 부
s 사 서 시 소 수
t 다 더 디 도 두
w 와 워 위 - -
y 야 여 - 요 유
- 아 어 이 오 우

hanmoya

a ai ya e ye o ao yo ua uai ue u i yao
k 가 개 갸 거 겨 고 과 교 구 귀 규 그 기 -
nk 까 - - 꺼 - 꼬 - - - - - 끄 끼 -
n 나 내 냐 너 녀 노 놔 뇨 누 뉘 뉴 느 니 -
t 다 대 - 더 - 도 돠 - - - - - 디 -
nt 따 - - 떠 - 또 - - - - - - 띠 -
l 라 래 - 러 - 로 롸 - - - - - 리 -
m 마 매 먀 머 며 모 뫄 묘 무 뮈 뮤 므 미 -
p 바 배 뱌 버 벼 보 봐 뵤 부 뷔 뷰 브 비 -
mp 빠 - - 뻐 - 뽀 - - - - - 쁘 삐 -
s 사 새 - 서 - 소 솨 - 수 쉬 슈 스 시 -
- 아 애 야 어 여 오 와 요 우 위 유 으 이 -
ts 자 재 - 저 - 조 좌 - 주 쥐 쥬 즈 지 -
tl 타 태 - 터 - 토 톼 - - - - - 티 -
h 하 해 햐 허 혀 호 화 효 후 휘 휴 흐 히 -

Derivational morphology

  • Noun → adjective: Suffix: -un
  • Adjective → noun: Suffix: -iya
  • Noun → verb: Suffix: -ek / -ra
  • Verb → noun: Suffix: -a / a-
  • Verb → adjective: Suffix: -u
  • Adjective → adverb: Suffix: -ha / -ak
  • One who X's (e.g. paint → painter): Suffix: -in
  • Place where (e.g. wine → winery): Suffix: -da
  • Diminutive: Suffix: -ish
  • Augmentative: Suffix: -am

:{| style="padding:10px 5px 10px 5px; font-family:Arial; font-style:italic; border:solid 1px rgb(0,0,0); background-color:rgb(250,250,255);" |- | rowspan="2" style="background-color:rgb(200,100,100);" |    | style="font-size:1.5em; text-align:center;" | Section under development |- | style="padding:0 0 0 30px;" | Please do not edit this section while this banner is displayed |}

subject/object

s/o - 1s 2s 3s 1p 2p 3p
1s -an - -anti -anu -anuk -anut -anum
2s -ti -eyan - -eyu -eyuk -eyut -eyum
3s -u -ilan -ati -ilu -iluk -ilut -ilum
1p -uk -ukan -ukti -uku - -ukut -ukum
2p -ut -utan -ute -utu -utuk - -utum
3p -um -uman -umti -umu -umuk -umut -

Semitic abjads

Abjads
Name Transliteration IPA Syriac Hebrew Arabic
alha a a / ʔ ܐ‬ א‬ ا‬
ba b b ܒ‬ ב‬ ب‬
gamla g ɡ / ɣ ܓ‬ ג‬‬ ج گ‬‬
dal d d / ð ܕ‬ ד‬‬ د ذ‬‬
ha h h / ɦ ܗ‬ ה‬‬ ه‬‬
wa w, u, o w / u: / o: ܘ‬ ו‬‬ و‬‬
zayin z z ܙ‬ ז‬‬‬ ز‬‬‬
khet kh ɦ / χ ܚ ח‬‬‬ ح خ‬‬
tet t t ܛ‬ ט‬ ط ظ‬‬
yad y, i j / i: / e: ܝ‬ י‬‬ ي‬
kapu k k / x ܟ‬ כ ך‬‬‬ ك‬‬‬
lam l l ܠ ל‬‬‬ ل‬‬‬
mem m m ܡ‬ מ ם‬‬ م‬‬
nun n n ܢ‬ נ ן‬‬ ن‬‬
samka s s ܣ‬ ס‬‬‬ س‬‬‬
eyin e e / ʔ ܥ‬ ע‬‬ ع غ‬‬‬
pe p p / f ܦ‬ פ ף‬‬ ف‬ پ‬‬
tsad ts ts ܨ‬ צ ץ‬‬ ص ض‬‬
qupa q ʔ / q ܩ‬ ק‬‬‬ ق‬‬‬
ra r ɾ / r ܪ‬ ר‬‬‬ ر‬‬‬
shin sh ʃ ܫ‬ ש‬‬ ش‬‬
ta t t ܬ‬ ת‬‬ ت ث‬‬

word gen kala

C=ptkmnshcxl
N=bdg
A=aeiou
W=12
Y=345
P=pkmnh
S=pkmnhsc

c|ts
x|tl
b|mp
d|nt
g|nk
1|ua
2|ue
3|ya
4|ye
5|yo
tu|ta
lu|la

CA
CACA
CANA
CAPY
CASW
CAW
CAY
NA
NACA
NAPY
NASW
NAW
NAY
PY
PYCA
PYNA
PYSW
SW
SWCA
SWNA
SWPY
WCA
WNA
YCA
YNA

tense

present past future
simple -e -i -o
perfect -le -li -lo
obligatory -se -so
immediate -ib
possible -go

case

Grammatical Cases
Name Suffix Example English Gloss
Nominative - amul the man (subject)
Accusative -wa / -u mulwa the man (object)
Dative bi- bimul for, to, on behalf of the man
Ablative -sha mulesha from the man
Genitive -ya / -ai mulya of the man
Locative -da muleda at, in, on the man
Instrumental/Comitative -ha / -ak mulha using/with the man
Grammatical Cases
Name Suffix Example English Gloss
Nominative - eqesh the house (subject)
Accusative -wa / -u eshwa the house (object)
Dative bi- biqesh for, to, on behalf of the house
Ablative -sha essha from the house
Genitive -ya / -ai eshai of the house
Locative -da eshda at, in, on the house
Instrumental/Comitative -ha / -ak eshak using/with the house

format

  • muku - /muːˈkʊ/
knife; blade; weapon; arms - "sword"

Morphosyntax

  • Simple declarative sentences usually have a subject-object-verb word order, though occasionally adverbs fall outside this paradigm and various particles can free-up word order. Kala has four grammatical persons — first, second, third, and obviative. The third person is used for proximate nouns, while obviates are non-present or demoted in comparison to a third person. Inanimate objects cannot be the proximate third person. Kala is an agglutinative language. It uses various affixes, mostly suffixes, to change the meaning and grammatical function of words.

Nouns are inflected for number.

animacy

All nouns are classified as either animate or inanimate. Generally it is easy to determine whether a noun will be animate, although some inherently inanimate objects such as...

Arguments of verbs are marked with a (patient marker) transitivity prefix/particle which must agree with the animacy of its arguments. Even in stories in which a grammatically inanimate object are markedly anthropomorphized, such as talking flowers, speakers will not use animate agreement markers with them.

verbs

The Kala verbal template contains a stem with several suffixes. The structure of the verb stem in Kala can be roughly broken down into the root, the medial, and the final. The root and final tend to be required elements. In Kala, the category of verb may also include words that would be categorized as adjectives or quantifiers in English.

notes

  • intransitive has NO object / transitive has object

Locative verbs

Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. In English, locations are indicated with adverbs and/or prepositions, this is not the case in Kala however. To express locative concepts in Kala, the following verbs/affixes are used:

The general locative (-hue) which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”.

  • na tsakahue nayo
1s home-LOC 1s.GEN
I'm in my home. / I'm at home.

Here are some common verbs used as adpositions:

  • -hue – in; at; on (general locative)
  • nahe – within; inside
  • nyaue – out; outside of; exterior
  • ma’e – before; in front of
  • pue – behind; after; in back of
  • ua’e – above; over; on
  • tahe – below; under; beneath; bottom
  • ya’e – near; close to
  • uaye – away (from)
  • maye – between; among

The above are used as prepositions, but can also function strictly as verbs.

  • mita tahe yempa ina
dog under table eat
The dog is eating under the table.
  • mita ke yempa tahe
dog table be.under
The dog is under the table.


The suffix -la (from yala “go; walk; travel”) forms an allative (or motive) preposition, expressing movement in the indicated direction, stopping at the position indicated by the locative:

  • nahela topu – into bed
  • pahela ke ana tayo – onto your head
  • tsayela tsaka – up to the house

The locative/allative pair works like English on/onto, in/into, but in Kala this distinction is made for all locatives: you must distinguish between them:

  • pue’ela kuanu – go behind a bush - (motion implied → allative)
  • pue kuanu koma – hide behind a bush - (no motion → locative)

Kala uses nouns to express more complex spatial relationships (these words are adverbs in English) this means that for example the word mokua should be interpreted as something like the everywhere or all places. So a phrase like mokua na'eta anya (meaning I see you everywhere) is literally I see you in all places. Likewise, yosohue na'eta anya means I see you at (the/my) left (area).

  • mokua – everywhere; all places
  • hina – here; hither
  • uana – there (near you)
  • yemua – there (over there)

The above nouns never take the -hue suffix.


extra

Adessive case adjacent location near/at/by the house location mita tsaka ya'e dog house near/by
Apudessive case location next to something next to the house location

Inessive case inside something inside the house location mita tsaka nahe dog house inside
Intrative case between something between the houses location mita tsaka-m maye dog house-pl between
Locative case location at/on/in the house location mita tsaka-hue dog at/on/in the house
Pertingent case in contact with something touching the house location

Subessive case under something under/below the house location mita tsaka tahe dog house under/below
Superessive case on the surface on (top of) the house location mita tsaka ua'e dog house on [top of]
Ablative case movement away from something away from the house motion from mita tsaka uaye-la dog house away-from
Delative case movement from the surface from (the top of) the house motion from

Egressive case marking the beginning of a movement or time beginning from the house motion from

Elative case out of something out of the house motion from mita tsaka uaye-la dog house out-of-go
Initiative case starting point of an action beginning from the house motion from

Allative case movement onto something onto the house motion to mita tsaka ua'e-la dog house on [top of]-go
Allative case movement to (the adjacency of) something / movement onto something to the house motion to mita tsaka ka'e-la dog house toward-go
Illative case movement into something into the house motion to mita tsaka nahe-la dog house into-go
Lative case movement to something to/into the house motion to

Sublative case movement onto the surface or below something on(to) the house / under the house motion to

Terminative case marking the end of a movement or time as far as the house motion to mita tsaka tsaye-la dog house up-to-go
Perlative case movement through or along through/along the house motion via

Prolative case movement using a surface or way by way of/through the house motion via

Prosecutive case across or along along the road motion via mita misa saye-la dog road along-go
Vialis case through or by by way of the house, through the house motion via

Ablative case all-round indirect case concerning the house relation

Aversive case avoiding or fear avoiding the house relation

Benefactive case for, for the benefit of, intended for for the house relation

Causal case because, because of because of the house relation

Causal-final case efficient or final cause for a house relation

Comitative case in company of something with the house relation

Dative case shows direction or recipient for/to the house relation

Distributive case distribution by piece per house relation

Distributive-temporal case how often something happens daily; on Sundays relation

Genitive case shows relationship, possession of the house relation

Ornative case endowment with something equipped with a house relation

Possessed case possession by something the house is owned by someone relation

Privative case lacking something without a house relation

Semblative case Similarity to something that tree is like a house relation

Sociative case along with something, together with something with the house relation

Partitive case used for amounts three (of the) houses semantic

Vocative case used for addressing someone, with or without a preposition Hey, father! O father! Father! semantic

Abessive case the lack of something without the house state

Adverbial case being as something as a house state

Comparative case similarity with something similar to the house state

Equative case comparison with something like the house state

Essive case temporary state of being as the house state

Essive-formal case marking a condition as a quality (a kind of shape) as a house state

Essive-modal case marking a condition as a quality (a way of being) as a house state

Exessive case marking a transition from a condition from being a house (i.e., "it stops being a house") state

Formal case marking a condition as a quality as a house state

Identical case showing that something is identical being the house state

Orientative case oriented towards something turned towards the house state

Revertive case backwards to something against the house state

Translative case change of a condition into another (turning) into a house state

Essive case specifying days and dates on Monday; on November 5th time

Temporal case specifying a time at seven [o'clock]; at midnight; at New Year's time

more

A huge storm is brewing over the sea. above pakyoha ua'e muana mulanko
He was wearing overalls on top of his other clothes. above
She leaned over the table to reach the salt. above
The clouds are above my head. above
The mountain casts a shadow over our house. above
The roof is above the ceiling. above
The sun rises over the earth. above
December comes after November. after / behind
I will come back in three days. after / behind
My back is behind my chest. after / behind
The equipment is behind a locked door. after / behind
The naughty boys hid behind the shed. after / behind
The snake disappeared behind the tree. after / behind
They will start drinking after sunset. after / behind
Turn right after the church. after / behind
We hear thunder after we see lightning. after / behind
Close your eyes against the light. against
He slips and falls against the wall. against
I am against the war. against
Swimming upstream is hard. against
The ancient Greeks fought against Persia. against
The ladder is against the fence. against
This camera is waterproof. against
You have acted against my wishes. against
According to the forecast, tomorrow will be even warmer. along
I walk along the street. along
The boy slides along the branch. along
The raft floated down the river. along
There's a spider crawling up my leg. along
Time travel is possible, according to this physicist. along
Around dawn, I heard your dog barking. around
I am about 50 years old. around
I can think of about a hundred reasons not to reveal my age. around
Ivy grows around the trunk. around
My hand is closed around my thumb. around
She wanders round the garden and smells the flowers. around
The campers sing songs around the fire. around
The concert began at about half past eight. around
The moon goes around the earth, and the earth goes around the sun. around
There is green paint around the windows. around
We intend to travel round the world on horseback. around
At least thirty people are waiting. at / to
At midnight, there will be fireworks. at / to
From Monday to Thursday is four days. at / to
He orders the soldiers to attack the fort. at / to
He painted his house white. at / to
He raises his eyes to the sky. at / to
He's resting at home. at / to
I am travelling to New York. at / to
I have to leave at four o'clock. at / to
I have visited this town before. at / to
I walk down the street, from one end to the other. at / to
I will not answer that question. at / to
I will serve the shrimp cold. at / to
I will teach you to speak the language. at / to
I'll meet you at the crossroads. at / to
Put your books away. at / to
Run in the house. at / to
Run into the house. at / to
Run to the house. at / to
See below. at / to
She finished the work at the start of the year. at / to
She gave a bone to the dog / She gave the dog a bone. at / to
Sudan is to the south of Egypt. at / to
Tell me your name. at / to
The boy added his name to the list. at / to
The cat jumps on the table. at / to
The cat jumps onto the table. at / to
The chair fell to bits. at / to
The diver went down. at / to
The dog runs forward. at / to
The ladder is leaning on the wall. at / to
The night is progressing towards dawn. at / to
The shape of Italy is similar to a leg. at / to
The ship is at sea. at / to
The wizard changed himself into a goat. at / to
They elected Maria (as) president. at / to
This pen belongs to me. at / to
We are sitting at the table. at / to
We can return later. at / to
We wish you a happy birthday. at / to
What happens if you don't conform to the rules? at / to
You annoy me from time to time. at / to
You can put your bag overhead. at / to
Your house is next to mine. at / to
Your idea seems absurd to me. at / to
You're standing too close to the edge. at / to
A dog is lying in front of the shop. before / front
I come before you to apologize. before / front
It's so dark that I can't see my hand in front of my eyes. before / front
January comes before February. before / front
My chest is in front of my back. before / front
The magazines are in front of the books. before / front
They intend to finish work before sunset. before / front
They put a pile of books in front of me. before / front
Turn left before the end of the street. before / front
We experience lightning before thunder. before / front
We have a lot of work ahead of us. before / front
We see lightning before we hear thunder. before / front
He was born between the wars. between
I usually wake up between seven and eight. between
LFN promotes communication between peoples. between
My head is between my ears. between
She travels between Paris and Madrid every week. between
The ball fell among the flowers. between
The Czech Republic is between Germany, Austria, Slovenia, and Poland. between
The table is between the chair and the wall. between
There will be a ten-minute interval between the two acts. between
What is the difference between a wall and a fence? between
You are among friends here. between
You have to pay between ten and twenty euros. between
(To be seen from) across the bridge is a wonderful view. beyond
The explorers journeyed beyond the mountains. beyond
The school is beyond the church. beyond
They rowed a dinghy across the lake. beyond
This task is beyond my talents. beyond
Hamlet is a play by Shakespeare. by
He was hit by a snowball. by
I am surprised by your reaction. by
I shall destroy the fence with a single kick. by
I travelled here by train. by
Roberto is my son-in-law. by
Switzerland is surrounded by other countries. by
The attack of/on the Trojans by the Greeks. (The Greeks attack the Trojans) by
The bottles are color-coded. by
The love of/for the mother. (The mother is loved) by
The mother's love. (The mother loves) by
The prisoner escaped by disguising himself as a door. by
This problem cannot be solved by negotiation. by
We discovered your secrets via our spies. by
Because you weren't there, I spoke on your behalf. for
Cups are used for drinking. for
For example, consider the whale. for
For that reason, I can't talk for long. for
He kicks the ball toward the goal. for
I bought it for a thousand euros. for
I voted for the proposal, but you voted against it. for
I will go to the shops for you. for
I won't delay you for more than a minute. for
I'm fighting for my life. for
I'm travelling (in order) to see the world. for
She wrote the book for her mother. for
Thank you for your postcard. for
The friends left for the coast. for
The journey will be dangerous for you. for
We are going to Colorado for a week. for
We work for money. for
You paid too much for that computer. for
You're dressed for an evening of dancing. for
Behave like an adult. like / as
He laughs like a hyena. like / as
I can jump as high as you. like / as
Yoghurt is like cream. like / as
Your heart is hard as stone. like / as
You've reached the same conclusion as me. like / as
A spider creeps from behind the clock. of / from
Do you like lamb? of / from
For his breakfast, he just drinks coffee. of / from
Give me a piece of cake, please. of / from
He is the world table-tennis champion. of / from
I am from New York. of / from
I have received a letter from the king. of / from
I have three boxes of books to sell. of / from
I like listening to the singing of the birds. of / from
I'm late because of a traffic jam. of / from
I'm traveling from Paris to London. of / from
Many years have passed since the war. of / from
My sunglasses are broken. of / from
She lent me an ugly-colored towel. of / from
She was impressed by the stillness of the forest. of / from
Since I was a child, I've wanted to stand on the moon. of / from
That is my brother's car. of / from
The belltower is to the right of the cathedral. of / from
The cat jumps off the chair. of / from
The leader was shouting from the front, but I couldn't hear. of / from
The monster came from below. of / from
The papers fell from the window. of / from
The result depends on the method used. of / from
The robber hides his face from the cameras. of / from
The seagull is a seabird. of / from
The sparrows climb from among the trees. of / from
The table is made of wood. of / from
The time has come to talk of many things. of / from
The tower is forty metres high. of / from
They added all the ingredients except the salt. of / from
They used sugar instead of salt. of / from
This bucket is full of fish. of / from
This will be your bedroom. of / from
Water differs from acid in its chemistry. of / from
We want to be free of you. of / from
We've been working since dawn. of / from
You forgot to apply the handbrake. of / from
A rock that falls onto the earth is called a meteorite. on / onto
Don't sit on the broken chair. on / onto
If you stand on the balcony, you can see the sea. on / onto
I'll hang this painting on the wall. on / onto
Is there life on Mars? on / onto
I've read many books on the subject. on / onto
My hat is on my head. on / onto
Put your cards on the table. on / onto
She put a thimble onto her finger. on / onto
The girl is crying over her lost doll. on / onto
The man kissed the woman on her cheek. on / onto
The play is about the war. on / onto
The tarmac on the road is melting in the heat. on / onto
Don't phone outside work hours. outside
He remembers nothing except for his name. outside
My shoe is outside my sock. outside
She lives outside the city. outside
The children ran outside the house. outside
There is no air outside the ship. outside
You are out of danger now. outside
My dog is more intelligent than me. than
That is much less interesting than this. than
There are more things in heaven and earth than are dreamt of in your philosophy. than
A lane leads through the fields to the lake. through
He sat in an armchair throughout the night. through
I look at the stars through the open window. through
The children ran through the village. through
The explosion could be heard throughout the city. through
The rain has found a way through my bag. through
The train goes from Milan to Rome via Bologna. through
They've stayed together through the years. through
Water flows through the pipes. through
Antelopes were resting under the trees. under
He wore a sweater under his jacket. under
I can't work under your rules. under
I have a parcel under my arm. under
The floor is below the ceiling. under
The real color of the ceiling is scarcely visible under this nasty paint. under
The snow crunches under my feet. under
The water went under the furniture. under
There's a table of sandwiches under the window. under
You appear to be under the influence of the wine. under
He works until midnight. up to / as far
He's visited every country from Andorra to Zambia. up to / as far
I am soaked to the skin. up to / as far
She accompanied me to my car. up to / as far
Study pages 25 to 42 (inclusive). up to / as far
The ground is covered in snow as far as the mountains. up to / as far
The price fell to just one euro. up to / as far
Until tomorrow / See you tomorrow! up to / as far
Wait until the summer. up to / as far
And with those words he disappeared. with / using
Compare this with yesterday's weather. with / using
Elena is a girl with red hair. with / using
Every day I get up with the sun. with / using
Everything changes with the passage of time. with / using
He bought a house with the money he inherited. with / using
His wife looks at him in amazement. with / using
I see the girl with her father. with / using
I write with a pen. with / using
Not many words start with X. with / using
She's given me a book with many photos. with / using
The horse kicks. with / using
The old man sits with a pipe in his mouth. with / using
The sugar has been mixed with salt. with / using
They are battling with the elements. with / using
They want to eat with us. with / using
We are drinking coffee with milk. with / using
We hear with our ears. with / using
We will fail even with your help. with / using
A good idea came into her head. within
Are we in agreement? within
Beethoven was born in 1770. within
Cats don't like being in water. within
He fell into the river. within
His fingers are stuck in the handle of a cup. within
I don't want to travel in this weather. within
I have some thoughts in my mind. within
I will repeat this in Greek. within
In addition, I see a new problem. within
In fact I see two problems. within
It started raining heavily while the reporter was talking. within
I've translated the article into French. within
My heart is in my chest. within
Put the rubbish in the bin. within
She wrote the book in three weeks. within
The building is on fire. within
The children are sitting in a circle. within
The plants are in pots. within
The prices are in euros. within
The sun is in the sky. within
We are in danger. within
We are passing into a new era. within
We are waiting in the car. within
We don't see the stars in the day. within
We spent an hour in conversation. within
We visited the museum in February. within
He fell asleep without meaning to. without
I shall decorate the entire house without help. without
I walked through the rain with no umbrella. without
The painting fell down for no apparent reason. without
The researcher left without discovering the answer. without
There's no smoke without fire. without
You are totally without mercy. without
Your wife likes her coffee without milk. without

Syntax

Simple sentences

Complex sentences

Clause coordination

Clause-level conjunctions such as ku "and", ua "or", or ehe "but, however" are placed clause-initially. Note that these conjunctions cannot be used to connect noun phrases.

  • tahi tohyo ku nahi pina
boy brave CL.CONJ girl intelligent
The boy is brave and the girl is intelligent.
  • ima kihu saman ehe pakyotlai
now weather sun-ADJ however storm-IMM
Now the weather is sunny, but a storm will come soon.

Coordination of noun phrases

Non-subject noun phrases are coordinated using the conjunction ma "and" (sometimes "with").

  • yomaye na ke tanka ma pato anya
day-PST 1sg O eagle CONJ duck see
I saw an eagle and a duck yesterday.
  • kinti ke tsaka kamyo ma'a yosu sapotle ma siuem muya
squirrel O house 3pl.POSS with moss soft-REL and leaf.PL make
The squirrels make their nest comfortable with soft moss and leaves.
  • ona ma ota kyosanku
mother and father fornicate-RECP
Mother and father have sex [with each other].
  • ta ma'a na ke molihuelatli
2sg with 1sg O forest-LOC-MOT-FUT
You and I will go to the forest together.

Noun phrases can be presented as alternatives to each other with the conjunction ua "or; other". This conjunction can be used with both subjects and non-subjects. The conjunction ue "(exclusive) either X or Y" is used to delimit other nouns from the conjunction phrase.

  • ta ke nasi ua poma inamyo
2sg O pear or apple eat-PERM
You may eat an apple or a pear.
  • tsola ue otso itsikua mataye
fox either.X.or.Y wolf PROX-bird kill-PST
It must have been a fox or a wolf that killed this bird.

Contrastive coordination of noun phrases ("but") is achieved with ehe "but; however" (or me more informally) if the noun phrases appear in subject position.

  • yomaye mita'u ehek mitana ke kutsu kapya
day-PST dog-MASC but-NEG O meat receive
The male dog but not the female dog received meat yesterday.
  • na itlaka mek inaka unya
1sg PROX-man but-NEG PROX-woman know
I know this man, but not this woman.

Complement clauses

Relative clauses

Relative clauses, i.e. subordinated clauses acting as an attribute to a noun phrase, are marked with the relativizer -tle (or -le if the last syllable has tl). A pronoun referring to the relativized noun is retained within the relative clause:

  • na ka naka amyatle pesoue
1sg O woman liked-REL meet-VOL
I want to meet a girl who is friendly.
  • naku nayo ke yakokua na tikuyetle inapua
sister 1sg.POSS O strawberry-all 1sg pick-PST-REL eat-PFV
My sister has eaten all the strawberries that I picked.
  • kam tananitle ke teki tlalitli
3pl fight-nice-REL O enemy defeat-FUT
They who fight well will defeat the enemy.

Evidentiality

affix from
direct participation (dir) - -
sensory perception (sens) - -
inferred from evidence (evid) - -
assumption; guess (ass) -ho toho
hearsay; fiction (rep) -tai ata


The first set of evidentiality markers indicated that the evidence was gained directly by the speaker via their senses. There were three such markers:

  • -xx-, which denotes that the speaker witnessed the action visually;
  • -xx-, which denotes that the speaker tasted or smelled the evidence and
  • -xx-, which denotes that the speaker felt or heard the evidence.

The second set of markers indicated that the evidence is secondhand and not directly derived from the speaker's experience. There were two such markers:

  • -xx-, which indicates that the information was received via hearsay and may or may not be accurate and
  • -xx-, which indicates that the speaker has no doubts about the information he has received.

The third set indicated that the information was not personally experienced but was inferred from indirect evidence. There were three of these markers:

  • -xx-, which indicated that there was physical evidence;
  • -xx-, which indicates that the information is general knowledge and
  • -xx-, which indicates that the information is inferred or assumed based on the speaker's past experience of similar situations.

kalama

  • kalama - speak; talk; utter
  • kasa - house; home; abode, dwelling
  • kawi - coffee
  • kome - eat; consume
  • ko - he, she [3sg]
  • kute - listen; hear
  • le - past tense [PST]
  • lo - many (more than one) / -lo - plural [PL]
  • loka - place; location
  • ma - what; which
  • maka - do; make; cause
  • miyo - feline; cat; lion; tiger
  • ne - no; not; negative [NEG]
  • ni - you [2sg]
  • o - direct object [DO]
  • oma - mother; grand-
  • opa - father; grand-
  • sa - future tense [FUT]
  • sapa - know; understand
  • ta - be big; large; grand
  • tale - give; transfer; donate
  • wa - I, me [1sg]
  • waka - bovine; cattle; livestock
  • wite - see; look; watch; observe
  • yo - have; possess; hold / -yo - possessive; genitive
  • yu - (be) in; at; on; by; near
Retrieved from "http://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Masako/sandbox&oldid=123042"