User:Masako/sandbox

tlika

tlika

	nata (nta)	tlaka (ta)	naka (na)
	nata relative	tlaka man; male	naka woman; female
hya-	hyanta grandparent	hyata grandfather	hyana grandmother
o-	onta parent	ota father	ona mother
ue-	uenta parent's sibling	ueta uncle	uena aunt
-ku	ntaku sibling	taku brother	naku sister
-hi	ntahi child	tahi son; boy	nahi daughter; girl
-hya	ntahya grandchild	tahya grandson	nahya granddaughter
-ue	ntaue cousin	taue male cousin	naue female cousin
-hue	ntahue nibling	tahue nephew	nahue niece

pa'a

	na'o	ta'o	ha'o
plosive pana (rain)	pa	ta	ka
nasal maua (flower)	ma	na	nya
affricate tlatsa (fire)	tsa	tla
continuant honu (turtle)	sa	ha	la
semivowel yasa (wind)	ua	ya	a

noun phrases

The basic noun phrase in Kala is PREPOSITION DETERMINER RELATIVE-CLAUSE NOUN DESCRIPTIVE-VERB. Depending on context, this is fairly predominant with a few exceptions

• opinion-size-age-shape-color-origin-material-purpose Noun

ukum

Kala	number	English	ordinal	multiple	fractional
na'o	1	one	kina'o first	tina'o once	-
ueta'o	12	twelve	kiueta'o twelfth	tiueta'o twelve times	iueta'o a twelfth
yauema'o yama'o	54	fifty four	kiyama'o fifty fourth	tiyama'o 54 times	iyama'o a fifty fourth
nyetsa'o	106	one hundred (and) six	kinyetsa'o 106th	tinyetsa'o 106 times	inyetsa'o a 106th
katle'o	7000	seven thousand	kikatle'o seven thousandth	tikatle'o 7000 times	ikatle'o 1/7000

genitive

	singular	plural
1	nai	kai
2	tai	ai
3	lai	mai

{{col-begin}} {{col-break}} {{col-end}}

kata hangul

	a	e	i	o	u
k	가	거	기	고	구
l	라	러	리	로	루
m	마	머	미	모	무
n	나	너	니	노	누
p	바	버	비	보	부
s	사	서	시	소	수
t	다	더	디	도	두
w	와	워	위	-	-
y	야	여	-	요	유
-	아	어	이	오	우

hanmoya

	a	ai	ya	e	ye	o	ao	yo	ua	uai	ue	u	i	yao
k	가	개	갸	거	겨	고	과	교	구	귀	규	그	기	-
nk	까	-	-	꺼	-	꼬	-	-	-	-	-	끄	끼	-
n	나	내	냐	너	녀	노	놔	뇨	누	뉘	뉴	느	니	-
t	다	대	-	더	-	도	돠	-	-	-	-	-	디	-
nt	따	-	-	떠	-	또	-	-	-	-	-	-	띠	-
l	라	래	-	러	-	로	롸	-	-	-	-	-	리	-
m	마	매	먀	머	며	모	뫄	묘	무	뮈	뮤	므	미	-
p	바	배	뱌	버	벼	보	봐	뵤	부	뷔	뷰	브	비	-
mp	빠	-	-	뻐	-	뽀	-	-	-	-	-	쁘	삐	-
s	사	새	-	서	-	소	솨	-	수	쉬	슈	스	시	-
-	아	애	야	어	여	오	와	요	우	위	유	으	이	-
ts	자	재	-	저	-	조	좌	-	주	쥐	쥬	즈	지	-
tl	타	태	-	터	-	토	톼	-	-	-	-	-	티	-
h	하	해	햐	허	혀	호	화	효	후	휘	휴	흐	히	-

Derivational morphology

• Noun → adjective: Suffix: -un
• Adjective → noun: Suffix: -iya
• Noun → verb: Suffix: -ek / -ra
• Verb → noun: Suffix: -a / a-
• Verb → adjective: Suffix: -u
• Adjective → adverb: Suffix: -ha / -ak
• One who X's (e.g. paint → painter): Suffix: -in
• Place where (e.g. wine → winery): Suffix: -da
• Diminutive: Suffix: -ish
• Augmentative: Suffix: -am

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subject/object

s/o	-	1s	2s	3s	1p	2p	3p
1s	-an	-	-anti	-anu	-anuk	-anut	-anum
2s	-ti	-eyan	-	-eyu	-eyuk	-eyut	-eyum
3s	-u	-ilan	-ati	-ilu	-iluk	-ilut	-ilum
1p	-uk	-ukan	-ukti	-uku	-	-ukut	-ukum
2p	-ut	-utan	-ute	-utu	-utuk	-	-utum
3p	-um	-uman	-umti	-umu	-umuk	-umut	-

Semitic abjads

Abjads

Name	Transliteration	IPA	Syriac	Hebrew	Arabic
alha	a	a / ʔ	ܐ‬	א‬	ا‬
ba	b	b	ܒ‬	ב‬	ب‬
gamla	g	ɡ / ɣ	ܓ‬	ג‬‬	ج گ‬‬
dal	d	d / ð	ܕ‬	ד‬‬	د ذ‬‬
ha	h	h / ɦ	ܗ‬	ה‬‬	ه‬‬
wa	w, u, o	w / u: / o:	ܘ‬	ו‬‬	و‬‬
zayin	z	z	ܙ‬	ז‬‬‬	ز‬‬‬
khet	kh	ɦ / χ	ܚ	ח‬‬‬	ح خ‬‬
tet	t	t	ܛ‬	ט‬	ط ظ‬‬
yad	y, i	j / i: / e:	ܝ‬	י‬‬	ي‬
kapu	k	k / x	ܟ‬	כ ך‬‬‬	ك‬‬‬
lam	l	l	ܠ	ל‬‬‬	ل‬‬‬
mem	m	m	ܡ‬	מ ם‬‬	م‬‬
nun	n	n	ܢ‬	נ ן‬‬	ن‬‬
samka	s	s	ܣ‬	ס‬‬‬	س‬‬‬
eyin	e	e / ʔ	ܥ‬	ע‬‬	ع غ‬‬‬
pe	p	p / f	ܦ‬	פ ף‬‬	ف‬ پ‬‬
tsad	ts	ts	ܨ‬	צ ץ‬‬	ص ض‬‬
qupa	q	ʔ / q	ܩ‬	ק‬‬‬	ق‬‬‬
ra	r	ɾ / r	ܪ‬	ר‬‬‬	ر‬‬‬
shin	sh	ʃ	ܫ‬	ש‬‬	ش‬‬
ta	t	t	ܬ‬	ת‬‬	ت ث‬‬

word gen kala

C=ptkmnshcxl
N=bdg
A=aeiou
W=12
Y=345
P=pkmnh
S=pkmnhsc

c|ts
x|tl
b|mp
d|nt
g|nk
1|ua
2|ue
3|ya
4|ye
5|yo
tu|ta
lu|la

CA
CACA
CANA
CAPY
CASW
CAW
CAY
NA
NACA
NAPY
NASW
NAW
NAY
PY
PYCA
PYNA
PYSW
SW
SWCA
SWNA
SWPY
WCA
WNA
YCA
YNA

tense

	present	past	future
simple	-e	-i	-o
perfect	-le	-li	-lo
obligatory	-se		-so
immediate		-ib
possible			-go

case

Grammatical Cases

Name	Suffix	Example	English Gloss
Nominative	-	amul	the man (subject)
Accusative	-wa / -u	mulwa	the man (object)
Dative	bi-	bimul	for, to, on behalf of the man
Ablative	-sha	mulesha	from the man
Genitive	-ya / -ai	mulya	of the man
Locative	-da	muleda	at, in, on the man
Instrumental/Comitative	-ha / -ak	mulha	using/with the man

Grammatical Cases

Name	Suffix	Example	English Gloss
Nominative	-	eqesh	the house (subject)
Accusative	-wa / -u	eshwa	the house (object)
Dative	bi-	biqesh	for, to, on behalf of the house
Ablative	-sha	essha	from the house
Genitive	-ya / -ai	eshai	of the house
Locative	-da	eshda	at, in, on the house
Instrumental/Comitative	-ha / -ak	eshak	using/with the house

format

• muku - /muːˈkʊ/

knife; blade; weapon; arms - "sword"

evidentiality

Example	Translation	Evidential
hi·dawʔaƛwa·d	"I hear he found it"	-wa·t, hearsay
pu·pu·q̓adʔi	"he's blowing a whistle"	-q̓adi, auditory
č̓apaccaqil	"It looks like a canoe"	-caqił, uncertain visual evidence, as trying to make out something at a distance
haʔuk̓aƛpi·dic	"I see you ate"	-pi·t, inference from physical evidence
dudu·k̓aƛx̌a·š	"He's probably singing"	-x̌a·-š, inferred probability

evid 2.4

Example	Translation	Evidential
kam ke yoti matsunya	I saw them win the game.	-nya visual evidence, the speaker witnessed the event
naku hayo ke metlamyanu	I heard his sister play the flute.	-nu auditory/general evidence, the speaker heard/felt the event
kye ota tayo kupanko	It's said that your father is dying.	kye reported speech; hearsay, the speaker received via hearsay and may or may not be accurate
kola ke kotso kuhatsi	Someone has made a meal.	-tsi inferred based on physical evidence
ke maliya kantipuaho	(I assert that) Maria has been cheated.	-ho assumed or asserted based on experience

Morphosyntax

• Simple declarative sentences usually have a subject-object-verb word order, though occasionally adverbs fall outside this paradigm and various particles can free-up word order. Kala has four grammatical persons — first, second, third, and obviative. The third person is used for proximate nouns, while obviates are non-present or demoted in comparison to a third person. Inanimate objects cannot be the proximate third person. Kala is an agglutinative language. It uses various affixes, mostly suffixes, to change the meaning and grammatical function of words.

Nouns are inflected for number.

animacy

All nouns are classified as either animate or inanimate. Generally it is easy to determine whether a noun will be animate, although some inherently inanimate objects such as...

Arguments of verbs are marked with a (patient marker) transitivity prefix/particle which must agree with the animacy of its arguments. Even in stories in which a grammatically inanimate object are markedly anthropomorphized, such as talking flowers, speakers will not use animate agreement markers with them.

verbs

The Kala verbal template contains a stem with several suffixes. The structure of the verb stem in Kala can be roughly broken down into the root, the medial, and the final. The root and final tend to be required elements. In Kala, the category of verb may also include words that would be categorized as adjectives or quantifiers in English.

notes

• intransitive has NO object / transitive has object

Locative verbs

Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. In English, locations are indicated with adverbs and/or prepositions, this is not the case in Kala however. To express locative concepts in Kala, the following verbs/affixes are used:

The general locative (-hue) which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”.

• na tsakahue nayo

1s home-LOC 1s.GEN

I'm in my home. / I'm at home.

Here are some common verbs used as adpositions:

• -hue – in; at; on (general locative)
• nahe – within; inside
• nyaue – out; outside of; exterior
• ma’e – before; in front of
• pue – behind; after; in back of
• ua’e – above; over; on
• tahe – below; under; beneath; bottom
• ya’e – near; close to
• uaye – away (from)
• maye – between; among

The above are used as prepositions, but can also function strictly as verbs.

• mita tahe yempa ina

dog under table eat

The dog is eating under the table.

• mita ke yempa tahe

dog table be.under

The dog is under the table.

The suffix -la (from yala “go; walk; travel”) forms an allative (or motive) preposition, expressing movement in the indicated direction, stopping at the position indicated by the locative:

• nahela topu – into bed
• pahela ke ana tayo – onto your head
• tsayela tsaka – up to the house

The locative/allative pair works like English on/onto, in/into, but in Kala this distinction is made for all locatives: you must distinguish between them:

• pue’ela kuanu – go behind a bush - (motion implied → allative)
• pue kuanu koma – hide behind a bush - (no motion → locative)

Kala uses nouns to express more complex spatial relationships (these words are adverbs in English) this means that for example the word mokua should be interpreted as something like the everywhere or all places. So a phrase like mokua na'eta anya (meaning I see you everywhere) is literally I see you in all places. Likewise, yosohue na'eta anya means I see you at (the/my) left (area).

• mokua – everywhere; all places
• hina – here; hither
• uana – there (near you)
• yemua – there (over there)

The above nouns never take the -hue suffix.

extra

Adessive case	adjacent location	near/at/by the house	location	mita tsaka ya'e	dog house near/by
Apudessive case	location next to something	next to the house	location
Inessive case	inside something	inside the house	location	mita tsaka nahe	dog house inside
Intrative case	between something	between the houses	location	mita tsaka-m maye	dog house-pl between
Locative case	location	at/on/in the house	location	mita tsaka-hue	dog at/on/in the house
Pertingent case	in contact with something	touching the house	location
Subessive case	under something	under/below the house	location	mita tsaka tahe	dog house under/below
Superessive case	on the surface	on (top of) the house	location	mita tsaka ua'e	dog house on [top of]
Ablative case	movement away from something	away from the house	motion from	mita tsaka uaye-la	dog house away-from
Delative case	movement from the surface	from (the top of) the house	motion from
Egressive case	marking the beginning of a movement or time	beginning from the house	motion from
Elative case	out of something	out of the house	motion from	mita tsaka uaye-la	dog house out-of-go
Initiative case	starting point of an action	beginning from the house	motion from
Allative case	movement onto something	onto the house	motion to	mita tsaka ua'e-la	dog house on [top of]-go
Allative case	movement to (the adjacency of) something / movement onto something	to the house	motion to	mita tsaka ka'e-la	dog house toward-go
Illative case	movement into something	into the house	motion to	mita tsaka nahe-la	dog house into-go
Lative case	movement to something	to/into the house	motion to
Sublative case	movement onto the surface or below something	on(to) the house / under the house	motion to
Terminative case	marking the end of a movement or time	as far as the house	motion to	mita tsaka tsaye-la	dog house up-to-go
Perlative case	movement through or along	through/along the house	motion via
Prolative case	movement using a surface or way	by way of/through the house	motion via
Prosecutive case	across or along	along the road	motion via	mita misa saye-la	dog road along-go
Vialis case	through or by	by way of the house, through the house	motion via
Ablative case	all-round indirect case	concerning the house	relation
Aversive case	avoiding or fear	avoiding the house	relation
Benefactive case	for, for the benefit of, intended for	for the house	relation
Causal case	because, because of	because of the house	relation
Causal-final case	efficient or final cause	for a house	relation
Comitative case	in company of something	with the house	relation
Dative case	shows direction or recipient	for/to the house	relation
Distributive case	distribution by piece	per house	relation
Distributive-temporal case	how often something happens	daily; on Sundays	relation
Genitive case	shows relationship, possession	of the house	relation
Ornative case	endowment with something	equipped with a house	relation
Possessed case	possession by something	the house is owned by someone	relation
Privative case	lacking something	without a house	relation
Semblative case	Similarity to something	that tree is like a house	relation
Sociative case	along with something, together with something	with the house	relation
Partitive case	used for amounts	three (of the) houses	semantic
Vocative case	used for addressing someone, with or without a preposition	Hey, father! O father! Father!	semantic
Abessive case	the lack of something	without the house	state
Adverbial case	being as something	as a house	state
Comparative case	similarity with something	similar to the house	state
Equative case	comparison with something	like the house	state
Essive case	temporary state of being	as the house	state
Essive-formal case	marking a condition as a quality (a kind of shape)	as a house	state
Essive-modal case	marking a condition as a quality (a way of being)	as a house	state
Exessive case	marking a transition from a condition	from being a house (i.e., "it stops being a house")	state
Formal case	marking a condition as a quality	as a house	state
Identical case	showing that something is identical	being the house	state
Orientative case	oriented towards something	turned towards the house	state
Revertive case	backwards to something	against the house	state
Translative case	change of a condition into another	(turning) into a house	state
Essive case	specifying days and dates	on Monday; on November 5th	time
Temporal case	specifying a time	at seven [o'clock]; at midnight; at New Year's	time

more

A huge storm is brewing over the sea.	above	pakyoha ua'e muana mulanko
He was wearing overalls on top of his other clothes.	above
She leaned over the table to reach the salt.	above
The clouds are above my head.	above
The mountain casts a shadow over our house.	above
The roof is above the ceiling.	above
The sun rises over the earth.	above
December comes after November.	after / behind
I will come back in three days.	after / behind
My back is behind my chest.	after / behind
The equipment is behind a locked door.	after / behind
The naughty boys hid behind the shed.	after / behind
The snake disappeared behind the tree.	after / behind
They will start drinking after sunset.	after / behind
Turn right after the church.	after / behind
We hear thunder after we see lightning.	after / behind
Close your eyes against the light.	against
He slips and falls against the wall.	against
I am against the war.	against
Swimming upstream is hard.	against
The ancient Greeks fought against Persia.	against
The ladder is against the fence.	against
This camera is waterproof.	against
You have acted against my wishes.	against
According to the forecast, tomorrow will be even warmer.	along
I walk along the street.	along
The boy slides along the branch.	along
The raft floated down the river.	along
There's a spider crawling up my leg.	along
Time travel is possible, according to this physicist.	along
Around dawn, I heard your dog barking.	around
I am about 50 years old.	around
I can think of about a hundred reasons not to reveal my age.	around
Ivy grows around the trunk.	around
My hand is closed around my thumb.	around
She wanders round the garden and smells the flowers.	around
The campers sing songs around the fire.	around
The concert began at about half past eight.	around
The moon goes around the earth, and the earth goes around the sun.	around
There is green paint around the windows.	around
We intend to travel round the world on horseback.	around
At least thirty people are waiting.	at / to
At midnight, there will be fireworks.	at / to
From Monday to Thursday is four days.	at / to
He orders the soldiers to attack the fort.	at / to
He painted his house white.	at / to
He raises his eyes to the sky.	at / to
He's resting at home.	at / to
I am travelling to New York.	at / to
I have to leave at four o'clock.	at / to
I have visited this town before.	at / to
I walk down the street, from one end to the other.	at / to
I will not answer that question.	at / to
I will serve the shrimp cold.	at / to
I will teach you to speak the language.	at / to
I'll meet you at the crossroads.	at / to
Put your books away.	at / to
Run in the house.	at / to
Run into the house.	at / to
Run to the house.	at / to
See below.	at / to
She finished the work at the start of the year.	at / to
She gave a bone to the dog / She gave the dog a bone.	at / to
Sudan is to the south of Egypt.	at / to
Tell me your name.	at / to
The boy added his name to the list.	at / to
The cat jumps on the table.	at / to
The cat jumps onto the table.	at / to
The chair fell to bits.	at / to
The diver went down.	at / to
The dog runs forward.	at / to
The ladder is leaning on the wall.	at / to
The night is progressing towards dawn.	at / to
The shape of Italy is similar to a leg.	at / to
The ship is at sea.	at / to
The wizard changed himself into a goat.	at / to
They elected Maria (as) president.	at / to
This pen belongs to me.	at / to
We are sitting at the table.	at / to
We can return later.	at / to
We wish you a happy birthday.	at / to
What happens if you don't conform to the rules?	at / to
You annoy me from time to time.	at / to
You can put your bag overhead.	at / to
Your house is next to mine.	at / to
Your idea seems absurd to me.	at / to
You're standing too close to the edge.	at / to
A dog is lying in front of the shop.	before / front
I come before you to apologize.	before / front
It's so dark that I can't see my hand in front of my eyes.	before / front
January comes before February.	before / front
My chest is in front of my back.	before / front
The magazines are in front of the books.	before / front
They intend to finish work before sunset.	before / front
They put a pile of books in front of me.	before / front
Turn left before the end of the street.	before / front
We experience lightning before thunder.	before / front
We have a lot of work ahead of us.	before / front
We see lightning before we hear thunder.	before / front
He was born between the wars.	between
I usually wake up between seven and eight.	between
LFN promotes communication between peoples.	between
My head is between my ears.	between
She travels between Paris and Madrid every week.	between
The ball fell among the flowers.	between
The Czech Republic is between Germany, Austria, Slovenia, and Poland.	between
The table is between the chair and the wall.	between
There will be a ten-minute interval between the two acts.	between
What is the difference between a wall and a fence?	between
You are among friends here.	between
You have to pay between ten and twenty euros.	between
(To be seen from) across the bridge is a wonderful view.	beyond
The explorers journeyed beyond the mountains.	beyond
The school is beyond the church.	beyond
They rowed a dinghy across the lake.	beyond
This task is beyond my talents.	beyond
Hamlet is a play by Shakespeare.	by
He was hit by a snowball.	by
I am surprised by your reaction.	by
I shall destroy the fence with a single kick.	by
I travelled here by train.	by
Roberto is my son-in-law.	by
Switzerland is surrounded by other countries.	by
The attack of/on the Trojans by the Greeks. (The Greeks attack the Trojans)	by
The bottles are color-coded.	by
The love of/for the mother. (The mother is loved)	by
The mother's love. (The mother loves)	by
The prisoner escaped by disguising himself as a door.	by
This problem cannot be solved by negotiation.	by
We discovered your secrets via our spies.	by
Because you weren't there, I spoke on your behalf.	for
Cups are used for drinking.	for
For example, consider the whale.	for
For that reason, I can't talk for long.	for
He kicks the ball toward the goal.	for
I bought it for a thousand euros.	for
I voted for the proposal, but you voted against it.	for
I will go to the shops for you.	for
I won't delay you for more than a minute.	for
I'm fighting for my life.	for
I'm travelling (in order) to see the world.	for
She wrote the book for her mother.	for
Thank you for your postcard.	for
The friends left for the coast.	for
The journey will be dangerous for you.	for
We are going to Colorado for a week.	for
We work for money.	for
You paid too much for that computer.	for
You're dressed for an evening of dancing.	for
Behave like an adult.	like / as
He laughs like a hyena.	like / as
I can jump as high as you.	like / as
Yoghurt is like cream.	like / as
Your heart is hard as stone.	like / as
You've reached the same conclusion as me.	like / as
A spider creeps from behind the clock.	of / from
Do you like lamb?	of / from
For his breakfast, he just drinks coffee.	of / from
Give me a piece of cake, please.	of / from
He is the world table-tennis champion.	of / from
I am from New York.	of / from
I have received a letter from the king.	of / from
I have three boxes of books to sell.	of / from
I like listening to the singing of the birds.	of / from
I'm late because of a traffic jam.	of / from
I'm traveling from Paris to London.	of / from
Many years have passed since the war.	of / from
My sunglasses are broken.	of / from
She lent me an ugly-colored towel.	of / from
She was impressed by the stillness of the forest.	of / from
Since I was a child, I've wanted to stand on the moon.	of / from
That is my brother's car.	of / from
The belltower is to the right of the cathedral.	of / from
The cat jumps off the chair.	of / from
The leader was shouting from the front, but I couldn't hear.	of / from
The monster came from below.	of / from
The papers fell from the window.	of / from
The result depends on the method used.	of / from
The robber hides his face from the cameras.	of / from
The seagull is a seabird.	of / from
The sparrows climb from among the trees.	of / from
The table is made of wood.	of / from
The time has come to talk of many things.	of / from
The tower is forty metres high.	of / from
They added all the ingredients except the salt.	of / from
They used sugar instead of salt.	of / from
This bucket is full of fish.	of / from
This will be your bedroom.	of / from
Water differs from acid in its chemistry.	of / from
We want to be free of you.	of / from
We've been working since dawn.	of / from
You forgot to apply the handbrake.	of / from
A rock that falls onto the earth is called a meteorite.	on / onto
Don't sit on the broken chair.	on / onto
If you stand on the balcony, you can see the sea.	on / onto
I'll hang this painting on the wall.	on / onto
Is there life on Mars?	on / onto
I've read many books on the subject.	on / onto
My hat is on my head.	on / onto
Put your cards on the table.	on / onto
She put a thimble onto her finger.	on / onto
The girl is crying over her lost doll.	on / onto
The man kissed the woman on her cheek.	on / onto
The play is about the war.	on / onto
The tarmac on the road is melting in the heat.	on / onto
Don't phone outside work hours.	outside
He remembers nothing except for his name.	outside
My shoe is outside my sock.	outside
She lives outside the city.	outside
The children ran outside the house.	outside
There is no air outside the ship.	outside
You are out of danger now.	outside
My dog is more intelligent than me.	than
That is much less interesting than this.	than
There are more things in heaven and earth than are dreamt of in your philosophy.	than
A lane leads through the fields to the lake.	through
He sat in an armchair throughout the night.	through
I look at the stars through the open window.	through
The children ran through the village.	through
The explosion could be heard throughout the city.	through
The rain has found a way through my bag.	through
The train goes from Milan to Rome via Bologna.	through
They've stayed together through the years.	through
Water flows through the pipes.	through
Antelopes were resting under the trees.	under
He wore a sweater under his jacket.	under
I can't work under your rules.	under
I have a parcel under my arm.	under
The floor is below the ceiling.	under
The real color of the ceiling is scarcely visible under this nasty paint.	under
The snow crunches under my feet.	under
The water went under the furniture.	under
There's a table of sandwiches under the window.	under
You appear to be under the influence of the wine.	under
He works until midnight.	up to / as far
He's visited every country from Andorra to Zambia.	up to / as far
I am soaked to the skin.	up to / as far
She accompanied me to my car.	up to / as far
Study pages 25 to 42 (inclusive).	up to / as far
The ground is covered in snow as far as the mountains.	up to / as far
The price fell to just one euro.	up to / as far
Until tomorrow / See you tomorrow!	up to / as far
Wait until the summer.	up to / as far
And with those words he disappeared.	with / using
Compare this with yesterday's weather.	with / using
Elena is a girl with red hair.	with / using
Every day I get up with the sun.	with / using
Everything changes with the passage of time.	with / using
He bought a house with the money he inherited.	with / using
His wife looks at him in amazement.	with / using
I see the girl with her father.	with / using
I write with a pen.	with / using
Not many words start with X.	with / using
She's given me a book with many photos.	with / using
The horse kicks.	with / using
The old man sits with a pipe in his mouth.	with / using
The sugar has been mixed with salt.	with / using
They are battling with the elements.	with / using
They want to eat with us.	with / using
We are drinking coffee with milk.	with / using
We hear with our ears.	with / using
We will fail even with your help.	with / using
A good idea came into her head.	within
Are we in agreement?	within
Beethoven was born in 1770.	within
Cats don't like being in water.	within
He fell into the river.	within
His fingers are stuck in the handle of a cup.	within
I don't want to travel in this weather.	within
I have some thoughts in my mind.	within
I will repeat this in Greek.	within
In addition, I see a new problem.	within
In fact I see two problems.	within
It started raining heavily while the reporter was talking.	within
I've translated the article into French.	within
My heart is in my chest.	within
Put the rubbish in the bin.	within
She wrote the book in three weeks.	within
The building is on fire.	within
The children are sitting in a circle.	within
The plants are in pots.	within
The prices are in euros.	within
The sun is in the sky.	within
We are in danger.	within
We are passing into a new era.	within
We are waiting in the car.	within
We don't see the stars in the day.	within
We spent an hour in conversation.	within
We visited the museum in February.	within
He fell asleep without meaning to.	without
I shall decorate the entire house without help.	without
I walked through the rain with no umbrella.	without
The painting fell down for no apparent reason.	without
The researcher left without discovering the answer.	without
There's no smoke without fire.	without
You are totally without mercy.	without
Your wife likes her coffee without milk.	without

Syntax

Complex sentences

Clause coordination

Clause-level conjunctions such as ku "and", ua "or", or ehe "but, however" are placed clause-initially. Note that these conjunctions cannot be used to connect noun phrases.

• tahi tohyo ku nahi pina

boy brave CL.CONJ girl intelligent

The boy is brave and the girl is intelligent.

• ima kihu saman ehe pakyotlai

now weather sun-ADJ however storm-IMM

Now the weather is sunny, but a storm will come soon.

Coordination of noun phrases

Non-subject noun phrases are coordinated using the conjunction ma "and" (sometimes "with").

• yomaye na ke tanka ma pato anya

day-PST 1sg O eagle CONJ duck see

I saw an eagle and a duck yesterday.

• kinti ke tsaka kamyo ma'a yosu sapotle ma siuem muya

squirrel O house 3pl.POSS with moss soft-REL and leaf.PL make

The squirrels make their nest comfortable with soft moss and leaves.

• ona ma ota kyosanku

mother and father fornicate-RECP

Mother and father have sex [with each other].

• ta ma'a na ke molihuelatli

2sg with 1sg O forest-LOC-MOT-FUT

You and I will go to the forest together.

Noun phrases can be presented as alternatives to each other with the conjunction ua "or; other". This conjunction can be used with both subjects and non-subjects. The conjunction ue "(exclusive) either X or Y" is used to delimit other nouns from the conjunction phrase.

• ta ke nasi ua poma inamyo

2sg O pear or apple eat-PERM

You may eat an apple or a pear.

• tsola ue otso itsikua mataye

fox either.X.or.Y wolf PROX-bird kill-PST

It must have been a fox or a wolf that killed this bird.

Contrastive coordination of noun phrases ("but") is achieved with ehe "but; however" (or me more informally) if the noun phrases appear in subject position.

• yomaye mita'u ehek mitana ke kutsu kapya

day-PST dog-MASC but-NEG O meat receive

The male dog but not the female dog received meat yesterday.

• na itlaka mek inaka unya

1sg PROX-man but-NEG PROX-woman know

I know this man, but not this woman.

Relative clauses

Relative clauses, i.e. subordinated clauses acting as an attribute to a noun phrase, are marked with the relativizer -tle (or -le if the last syllable has tl). A pronoun referring to the relativized noun is retained within the relative clause:

• na ka naka amyatle pesoue

1sg O woman liked-REL meet-VOL

I want to meet a girl who is friendly.

• naku nayo ke yakokua na tikuyetle inapua

sister 1sg.POSS O strawberry-all 1sg pick-PST-REL eat-PFV

My sister has eaten all the strawberries that I picked.

• kam tananitle ke teki tlalitli

3pl fight-nice-REL O enemy defeat-FUT

They who fight well will defeat the enemy.

Evidentiality

	affix	from
direct participation (dir)	-	-
sensory perception (sens)	-	-
inferred from evidence (evid)	-	-
assumption; guess (ass)	-ho	toho
hearsay; fiction (rep)	-tai	ata

The first set of evidentiality markers indicated that the evidence was gained directly by the speaker via their senses. There were three such markers:

• -xx-, which denotes that the speaker witnessed the action visually;
• -xx-, which denotes that the speaker tasted or smelled the evidence and
• -xx-, which denotes that the speaker felt or heard the evidence.

The second set of markers indicated that the evidence is secondhand and not directly derived from the speaker's experience. There were two such markers:

• -xx-, which indicates that the information was received via hearsay and may or may not be accurate and
• -xx-, which indicates that the speaker has no doubts about the information he has received.

The third set indicated that the information was not personally experienced but was inferred from indirect evidence. There were three of these markers:

• -xx-, which indicated that there was physical evidence;
• -xx-, which indicates that the information is general knowledge and
• -xx-, which indicates that the information is inferred or assumed based on the speaker's past experience of similar situations.

kalama

• kalama - speak; talk; utter
• kasa - house; home; abode, dwelling
• kawi - coffee
• kome - eat; consume
• ko - he, she [3sg]
• kute - listen; hear
• le - past tense [PST]
• lo - many (more than one) / -lo - plural [PL]
• loka - place; location
• ma - what; which
• maka - do; make; cause
• miyo - feline; cat; lion; tiger
• ne - no; not; negative [NEG]
• ni - you [2sg]
• o - direct object [DO]
• oma - mother; grand-
• opa - father; grand-
• sa - future tense [FUT]
• sapa - know; understand
• ta - be big; large; grand
• tale - give; transfer; donate
• wa - I, me [1sg]
• waka - bovine; cattle; livestock
• wite - see; look; watch; observe
• yo - have; possess; hold / -yo - possessive; genitive
• yu - (be) in; at; on; by; near