tlika

tlika
	nata (nta)	tlaka (ta)	naka (na)
	nata relative	tlaka man; male	naka woman; female
hya-	hyanta grandparent	hyata grandfather	hyana grandmother
o-	onta parent	ota father	ona mother
ue-	uenta parent's sibling	ueta uncle	uena aunt
-ku	ntaku sibling	taku brother	naku sister
-hi	ntahi child	tahi son; boy	nahi daughter; girl
-hya	ntahya grandchild	tahya grandson	nahya granddaughter
-ue	ntaue cousin	taue male cousin	naue female cousin
-hue	ntahue nibling	tahue nephew	nahue niece

pa'a

	na'o	ta'o	ha'o
plosive pana (rain)	pa	ta	ka
nasal maua (flower)	ma	na	nya
affricate tlatsa (fire)	tsa	tla
continuant honu (turtle)	sa	ha	la
semivowel yasa (wind)	ua	ya	a

noun phrases

The basic noun phrase in Kala is PREPOSITION DETERMINER RELATIVE-CLAUSE NOUN DESCRIPTIVE-VERB. Depending on context, this is fairly predominant with a few exceptions

opinion-size-age-shape-color-origin-material-purpose Noun

ukum


Kala	number	English	ordinal	multiple	fractional
na'o	1	one	kina'o first	tina'o once	-
ueta'o	12	twelve	kiueta'o twelfth	tiueta'o twelve times	iueta'o a twelfth
yauema'o yama'o	54	fifty four	kiyama'o fifty fourth	tiyama'o 54 times	iyama'o a fifty fourth
nyetsa'o	106	one hundred (and) six	kinyetsa'o 106^th	tinyetsa'o 106 times	inyetsa'o a 106^th
katle'o	7000	seven thousand	kikatle'o seven thousandth	tikatle'o 7000 times	ikatle'o 1/7000

genitive

	singular	plural
1	nai	kai
2	tai	ai
3	lai	mai

kata hangul

	a	e	i	o	u
k	가	거	기	고	구
l	라	러	리	로	루
m	마	머	미	모	무
n	나	너	니	노	누
p	바	버	비	보	부
s	사	서	시	소	수
t	다	더	디	도	두
w	와	워	위	-	-
y	야	여	-	요	유
-	아	어	이	오	우

hanmoya

	a	ai	ya	e	ye	o	ao	yo	ua	uai	ue	u	i	yao
k	가	개	갸	거	겨	고	과	교	구	귀	규	그	기	-
nk	까	-	-	꺼	-	꼬	-	-	-	-	-	끄	끼	-
n	나	내	냐	너	녀	노	놔	뇨	누	뉘	뉴	느	니	-
t	다	대	-	더	-	도	돠	-	-	-	-	-	디	-
nt	따	-	-	떠	-	또	-	-	-	-	-	-	띠	-
l	라	래	-	러	-	로	롸	-	-	-	-	-	리	-
m	마	매	먀	머	며	모	뫄	묘	무	뮈	뮤	므	미	-
p	바	배	뱌	버	벼	보	봐	뵤	부	뷔	뷰	브	비	-
mp	빠	-	-	뻐	-	뽀	-	-	-	-	-	쁘	삐	-
s	사	새	-	서	-	소	솨	-	수	쉬	슈	스	시	-
-	아	애	야	어	여	오	와	요	우	위	유	으	이	-
ts	자	재	-	저	-	조	좌	-	주	쥐	쥬	즈	지	-
tl	타	태	-	터	-	토	톼	-	-	-	-	-	티	-
h	하	해	햐	허	혀	호	화	효	후	휘	휴	흐	히	-

Derivational morphology

Noun → adjective: Suffix: -un
Adjective → noun: Suffix: -iya
Noun → verb: Suffix: -ek / -ra
Verb → noun: Suffix: -a / a-
Verb → adjective: Suffix: -u
Adjective → adverb: Suffix: -ha / -ak
One who X's (e.g. paint → painter): Suffix: -in
Place where (e.g. wine → winery): Suffix: -da
Diminutive: Suffix: -XX
Augmentative: Suffix: -XX

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subject/object

s/o	-	1s	2s	3s	1p	2p	3p
1s	-an	-	-anti	-anu	-anuk	-anut	-anum
2s	-ti	-eyan	-	-eyu	-eyuk	-eyut	-eyum
3s	-u	-ilan	-ati	-ilu	-iluk	-ilut	-ilum
1p	-uk	-ukan	-ukti	-uku	-	-ukut	-ukum
2p	-ut	-utan	-ute	-utu	-utuk	-	-utum
3p	-um	-uman	-umti	-umu	-umuk	-umut	-

Semitic abjads

Abjads
Name	Transliteration	IPA	Syriac	Hebrew	Arabic
alha	a	a / ʔ	ܐ‬	א‬	ا‬
ba	b	b	ܒ‬	ב‬	ب‬
gamla	g	ɡ / ɣ	ܓ‬	ג‬‬	ج گ‬‬
dal	d	d / ð	ܕ‬	ד‬‬	د ذ‬‬
ha	h	h / ɦ	ܗ‬	ה‬‬	ه‬‬
wa	w, u, o	w / u: / o:	ܘ‬	ו‬‬	و‬‬
zayin	z	z	ܙ‬	ז‬‬‬	ز‬‬‬
khet	kh	ɦ / χ	ܚ	ח‬‬‬	ح خ‬‬
tet	t	t	ܛ‬	ט‬	ط ظ‬‬
yad	y, i	j / i: / e:	ܝ‬	י‬‬	ي‬
kapu	k	k / x	ܟ‬	כ ך‬‬‬	ك‬‬‬
lam	l	l	ܠ	ל‬‬‬	ل‬‬‬
mem	m	m	ܡ‬	מ ם‬‬	م‬‬
nun	n	n	ܢ‬	נ ן‬‬	ن‬‬
samka	s	s	ܣ‬	ס‬‬‬	س‬‬‬
eyin	e	e / ʔ	ܥ‬	ע‬‬	ع غ‬‬‬
pe	p	p / f	ܦ‬	פ ף‬‬	ف‬ پ‬‬
tsad	ts	ts	ܨ‬	צ ץ‬‬	ص ض‬‬
qupa	q	ʔ / q	ܩ‬	ק‬‬‬	ق‬‬‬
ra	r	ɾ / r	ܪ‬	ר‬‬‬	ر‬‬‬
shin	sh	ʃ	ܫ‬	ש‬‬	ش‬‬
ta	t	t	ܬ‬	ת‬‬	ت ث‬‬

word gen kala

C=ptkmnshcxl
N=bdg
A=aeiou
W=12
Y=345
P=pkmnh
S=pkmnhsc

c|ts
x|tl
b|mp
d|nt
g|nk
1|ua
2|ue
3|ya
4|ye
5|yo
tu|ta
lu|la

CA
CACA
CANA
CAPY
CASW
CAW
CAY
NA
NACA
NAPY
NASW
NAW
NAY
PY
PYCA
PYNA
PYSW
SW
SWCA
SWNA
SWPY
WCA
WNA
YCA
YNA

tense

	present	past	future
simple	-e	-i	-o
perfect	-le	-li	-lo
obligatory	-se		-so
immediate		-ib
possible			-go

case

**Grammatical Cases**
Name	Suffix	Example	English Gloss
Nominative	-	amul	the man (subject)
Accusative	-wa / -u	mulwa	the man (object)
Dative	bi-	bimul	for, to, on behalf of the man
Ablative	-sha	mulesha	from the man
Genitive	-ya / -ai	mulya	of the man
Locative	-da	muleda	at, in, on the man
Instrumental/Comitative	-ha / -ak	mulha	using/with the man

**Grammatical Cases**
Name	Suffix	Example	English Gloss
Nominative	-	eqesh	the house (subject)
Accusative	-wa / -u	eshwa	the house (object)
Dative	bi-	biqesh	for, to, on behalf of the house
Ablative	-sha	essha	from the house
Genitive	-ya / -ai	eshai	of the house
Locative	-da	eshda	at, in, on the house
Instrumental/Comitative	-ha / -ak	eshak	using/with the house

format

muku - /muːˈkʊ/

knife; blade; weapon; arms - "sword"

evidentiality

Example	Translation	Evidential
hi·dawʔaƛwa·d	"I hear he found it"	-wa·t, hearsay
pu·pu·q̓adʔi	"he's blowing a whistle"	-q̓adi, auditory
č̓apaccaqil	"It looks like a canoe"	-caqił, uncertain visual evidence, as trying to make out something at a distance
haʔuk̓aƛpi·dic	"I see you ate"	-pi·t, inference from physical evidence
dudu·k̓aƛx̌a·š	"He's probably singing"	-x̌a·-š, inferred probability

Morphosyntax

Simple declarative sentences usually have a subject-object-verb word order, though occasionally adverbs fall outside this paradigm and various particles can free-up word order. Kala has four grammatical persons — first, second, third, and obviative. The third person is used for proximate nouns, while obviates are non-present or demoted in comparison to a third person. Inanimate objects cannot be the proximate third person. Kala is an agglutinative language. It uses various affixes, mostly suffixes, to change the meaning and grammatical function of words.

Nouns are inflected for number.

animacy

All nouns are classified as either animate or inanimate. Generally it is easy to determine whether a noun will be animate, although some inherently inanimate objects such as...

Arguments of verbs are marked with a (patient marker) transitivity prefix/particle which must agree with the animacy of its arguments. Even in stories in which a grammatically inanimate object are markedly anthropomorphized, such as talking flowers, speakers will not use animate agreement markers with them.

verbs

The Kala verbal template contains a stem with several suffixes. The structure of the verb stem in Kala can be roughly broken down into the root, the medial, and the final. The root and final tend to be required elements. In Kala, the category of verb may also include words that would be categorized as adjectives or quantifiers in English.

notes

intransitive has NO object / transitive has object

Locative verbs

Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. In English, locations are indicated with adverbs and/or prepositions, this is not the case in Kala however. To express locative concepts in Kala, the following verbs/affixes are used:

The general locative (-hue) which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”.

na tsakahue nayo

1s home-LOC 1s.GEN

I'm in my home. / I'm at home.

Here are some common verbs used as adpositions:

-hue – in; at; on (general locative)
nahe – within; inside
nyaue – out; outside of; exterior
ma’e – before; in front of
pue – behind; after; in back of
ua’e – above; over; on
tahe – below; under; beneath; bottom
ya’e – near; close to
uaye – away (from)
maye – between; among

The above are used as prepositions, but can also function strictly as verbs.

mita tahe yempa ina

dog under table eat

The dog is eating under the table.

mita ke yempa tahe

dog table be.under

The dog is under the table.

The suffix -la (from yala “go; walk; travel”) forms an allative (or motive) preposition, expressing movement in the indicated direction, stopping at the position indicated by the locative:

nahela topu – into bed
pahela ke ana tayo – onto your head
tsayela tsaka – up to the house

The locative/allative pair works like English on/onto, in/into, but in Kala this distinction is made for all locatives: you must distinguish between them:

pue’ela kuanu – go behind a bush - (motion implied → allative)
pue kuanu koma – hide behind a bush - (no motion → locative)

Kala uses nouns to express more complex spatial relationships (these words are adverbs in English) this means that for example the word mokua should be interpreted as something like the everywhere or all places. So a phrase like mokua na'eta anya (meaning I see you everywhere) is literally I see you in all places. Likewise, yosohue na'eta anya means I see you at (the/my) left (area).

mokua – everywhere; all places
hina – here; hither
uana – there (near you)
yemua – there (over there)

The above nouns never take the -hue suffix.

extra

Adessive case adjacent location near/at/by the house location mita tsaka ya'e dog house near/by Apudessive case location next to something next to the house location Inessive case inside something inside the house location mita tsaka nahe dog house inside Intrative case between something between the houses location mita tsaka-m maye dog house-pl between Locative case location at/on/in the house location mita tsaka-hue dog at/on/in the house Pertingent case in contact with something touching the house location Subessive case under something under/below the house location mita tsaka tahe dog house under/below Superessive case on the surface on (top of) the house location mita tsaka ua'e dog house on [top of] Ablative case movement away from something away from the house motion from mita tsaka uaye-la dog house away-from Delative case movement from the surface from (the top of) the house motion from Egressive case marking the beginning of a movement or time beginning from the house motion from Elative case out of something out of the house motion from mita tsaka uaye-la dog house out-of-go Initiative case starting point of an action beginning from the house motion from Allative case movement onto something onto the house motion to mita tsaka ua'e-la dog house on [top of]-go Allative case movement to (the adjacency of) something / movement onto something to the house motion to mita tsaka ka'e-la dog house toward-go Illative case movement into something into the house motion to mita tsaka nahe-la dog house into-go Lative case movement to something to/into the house motion to Sublative case movement onto the surface or below something on(to) the house / under the house motion to Terminative case marking the end of a movement or time as far as the house motion to mita tsaka tsaye-la dog house up-to-go Perlative case movement through or along through/along the house motion via Prolative case movement using a surface or way by way of/through the house motion via Prosecutive case across or along along the road motion via mita misa saye-la dog road along-go Vialis case through or by by way of the house, through the house motion via Ablative case all-round indirect case concerning the house relation Aversive case avoiding or fear avoiding the house relation Benefactive case for, for the benefit of, intended for for the house relation Causal case because, because of because of the house relation Causal-final case efficient or final cause for a house relation Comitative case in company of something with the house relation Dative case shows direction or recipient for/to the house relation Distributive case distribution by piece per house relation Distributive-temporal case how often something happens daily; on Sundays relation Genitive case shows relationship, possession of the house relation Ornative case endowment with something equipped with a house relation Possessed case possession by something the house is owned by someone relation Privative case lacking something without a house relation Semblative case Similarity to something that tree is like a house relation Sociative case along with something, together with something with the house relation Partitive case used for amounts three (of the) houses semantic Vocative case used for addressing someone, with or without a preposition Hey, father! O father! Father! semantic Abessive case the lack of something without the house state Adverbial case being as something as a house state Comparative case similarity with something similar to the house state Equative case comparison with something like the house state Essive case temporary state of being as the house state Essive-formal case marking a condition as a quality (a kind of shape) as a house state Essive-modal case marking a condition as a quality (a way of being) as a house state Exessive case marking a transition from a condition from being a house (i.e., "it stops being a house") state Formal case marking a condition as a quality as a house state Identical case showing that something is identical being the house state Orientative case oriented towards something turned towards the house state Revertive case backwards to something against the house state Translative case change of a condition into another (turning) into a house state Essive case specifying days and dates on Monday; on November 5th time Temporal case specifying a time at seven [o'clock]; at midnight; at New Year's time

more

A huge storm is brewing over the sea. above pakyoha ua'e muana mulanko He was wearing overalls on top of his other clothes. above She leaned over the table to reach the salt. above The clouds are above my head. above The mountain casts a shadow over our house. above The roof is above the ceiling. above The sun rises over the earth. above December comes after November. after / behind I will come back in three days. after / behind My back is behind my chest. after / behind The equipment is behind a locked door. after / behind The naughty boys hid behind the shed. after / behind The snake disappeared behind the tree. after / behind They will start drinking after sunset. after / behind Turn right after the church. after / behind We hear thunder after we see lightning. after / behind Close your eyes against the light. against He slips and falls against the wall. against I am against the war. against Swimming upstream is hard. against The ancient Greeks fought against Persia. against The ladder is against the fence. against This camera is waterproof. against You have acted against my wishes. against According to the forecast, tomorrow will be even warmer. along I walk along the street. along The boy slides along the branch. along The raft floated down the river. along There's a spider crawling up my leg. along Time travel is possible, according to this physicist. along Around dawn, I heard your dog barking. around I am about 50 years old. around I can think of about a hundred reasons not to reveal my age. around Ivy grows around the trunk. around My hand is closed around my thumb. around She wanders round the garden and smells the flowers. around The campers sing songs around the fire. around The concert began at about half past eight. around The moon goes around the earth, and the earth goes around the sun. around There is green paint around the windows. around We intend to travel round the world on horseback. around At least thirty people are waiting. at / to At midnight, there will be fireworks. at / to From Monday to Thursday is four days. at / to He orders the soldiers to attack the fort. at / to He painted his house white. at / to He raises his eyes to the sky. at / to He's resting at home. at / to I am travelling to New York. at / to I have to leave at four o'clock. at / to I have visited this town before. at / to I walk down the street, from one end to the other. at / to I will not answer that question. at / to I will serve the shrimp cold. at / to I will teach you to speak the language. at / to I'll meet you at the crossroads. at / to Put your books away. at / to Run in the house. at / to Run into the house. at / to Run to the house. at / to See below. at / to She finished the work at the start of the year. at / to She gave a bone to the dog / She gave the dog a bone. at / to Sudan is to the south of Egypt. at / to Tell me your name. at / to The boy added his name to the list. at / to The cat jumps on the table. at / to The cat jumps onto the table. at / to The chair fell to bits. at / to The diver went down. at / to The dog runs forward. at / to The ladder is leaning on the wall. at / to The night is progressing towards dawn. at / to The shape of Italy is similar to a leg. at / to The ship is at sea. at / to The wizard changed himself into a goat. at / to They elected Maria (as) president. at / to This pen belongs to me. at / to We are sitting at the table. at / to We can return later. at / to We wish you a happy birthday. at / to What happens if you don't conform to the rules? at / to You annoy me from time to time. at / to You can put your bag overhead. at / to Your house is next to mine. at / to Your idea seems absurd to me. at / to You're standing too close to the edge. at / to A dog is lying in front of the shop. before / front I come before you to apologize. before / front It's so dark that I can't see my hand in front of my eyes. before / front January comes before February. before / front My chest is in front of my back. before / front The magazines are in front of the books. before / front They intend to finish work before sunset. before / front They put a pile of books in front of me. before / front Turn left before the end of the street. before / front We experience lightning before thunder. before / front We have a lot of work ahead of us. before / front We see lightning before we hear thunder. before / front He was born between the wars. between I usually wake up between seven and eight. between LFN promotes communication between peoples. between My head is between my ears. between She travels between Paris and Madrid every week. between The ball fell among the flowers. between The Czech Republic is between Germany, Austria, Slovenia, and Poland. between The table is between the chair and the wall. between There will be a ten-minute interval between the two acts. between What is the difference between a wall and a fence? between You are among friends here. between You have to pay between ten and twenty euros. between (To be seen from) across the bridge is a wonderful view. beyond The explorers journeyed beyond the mountains. beyond The school is beyond the church. beyond They rowed a dinghy across the lake. beyond This task is beyond my talents. beyond Hamlet is a play by Shakespeare. by He was hit by a snowball. by I am surprised by your reaction. by I shall destroy the fence with a single kick. by I travelled here by train. by Roberto is my son-in-law. by Switzerland is surrounded by other countries. by The attack of/on the Trojans by the Greeks. (The Greeks attack the Trojans) by The bottles are color-coded. by The love of/for the mother. (The mother is loved) by The mother's love. (The mother loves) by The prisoner escaped by disguising himself as a door. by This problem cannot be solved by negotiation. by We discovered your secrets via our spies. by Because you weren't there, I spoke on your behalf. for Cups are used for drinking. for For example, consider the whale. for For that reason, I can't talk for long. for He kicks the ball toward the goal. for I bought it for a thousand euros. for I voted for the proposal, but you voted against it. for I will go to the shops for you. for I won't delay you for more than a minute. for I'm fighting for my life. for I'm travelling (in order) to see the world. for She wrote the book for her mother. for Thank you for your postcard. for The friends left for the coast. for The journey will be dangerous for you. for We are going to Colorado for a week. for We work for money. for You paid too much for that computer. for You're dressed for an evening of dancing. for Behave like an adult. like / as He laughs like a hyena. like / as I can jump as high as you. like / as Yoghurt is like cream. like / as Your heart is hard as stone. like / as You've reached the same conclusion as me. like / as A spider creeps from behind the clock. of / from Do you like lamb? of / from For his breakfast, he just drinks coffee. of / from Give me a piece of cake, please. of / from He is the world table-tennis champion. of / from I am from New York. of / from I have received a letter from the king. of / from I have three boxes of books to sell. of / from I like listening to the singing of the birds. of / from I'm late because of a traffic jam. of / from I'm traveling from Paris to London. of / from Many years have passed since the war. of / from My sunglasses are broken. of / from She lent me an ugly-colored towel. of / from She was impressed by the stillness of the forest. of / from Since I was a child, I've wanted to stand on the moon. of / from That is my brother's car. of / from The belltower is to the right of the cathedral. of / from The cat jumps off the chair. of / from The leader was shouting from the front, but I couldn't hear. of / from The monster came from below. of / from The papers fell from the window. of / from The result depends on the method used. of / from The robber hides his face from the cameras. of / from The seagull is a seabird. of / from The sparrows climb from among the trees. of / from The table is made of wood. of / from The time has come to talk of many things. of / from The tower is forty metres high. of / from They added all the ingredients except the salt. of / from They used sugar instead of salt. of / from This bucket is full of fish. of / from This will be your bedroom. of / from Water differs from acid in its chemistry. of / from We want to be free of you. of / from We've been working since dawn. of / from You forgot to apply the handbrake. of / from A rock that falls onto the earth is called a meteorite. on / onto Don't sit on the broken chair. on / onto If you stand on the balcony, you can see the sea. on / onto I'll hang this painting on the wall. on / onto Is there life on Mars? on / onto I've read many books on the subject. on / onto My hat is on my head. on / onto Put your cards on the table. on / onto She put a thimble onto her finger. on / onto The girl is crying over her lost doll. on / onto The man kissed the woman on her cheek. on / onto The play is about the war. on / onto The tarmac on the road is melting in the heat. on / onto Don't phone outside work hours. outside He remembers nothing except for his name. outside My shoe is outside my sock. outside She lives outside the city. outside The children ran outside the house. outside There is no air outside the ship. outside You are out of danger now. outside My dog is more intelligent than me. than That is much less interesting than this. than There are more things in heaven and earth than are dreamt of in your philosophy. than A lane leads through the fields to the lake. through He sat in an armchair throughout the night. through I look at the stars through the open window. through The children ran through the village. through The explosion could be heard throughout the city. through The rain has found a way through my bag. through The train goes from Milan to Rome via Bologna. through They've stayed together through the years. through Water flows through the pipes. through Antelopes were resting under the trees. under He wore a sweater under his jacket. under I can't work under your rules. under I have a parcel under my arm. under The floor is below the ceiling. under The real color of the ceiling is scarcely visible under this nasty paint. under The snow crunches under my feet. under The water went under the furniture. under There's a table of sandwiches under the window. under You appear to be under the influence of the wine. under He works until midnight. up to / as far He's visited every country from Andorra to Zambia. up to / as far I am soaked to the skin. up to / as far She accompanied me to my car. up to / as far Study pages 25 to 42 (inclusive). up to / as far The ground is covered in snow as far as the mountains. up to / as far The price fell to just one euro. up to / as far Until tomorrow / See you tomorrow! up to / as far Wait until the summer. up to / as far And with those words he disappeared. with / using Compare this with yesterday's weather. with / using Elena is a girl with red hair. with / using Every day I get up with the sun. with / using Everything changes with the passage of time. with / using He bought a house with the money he inherited. with / using His wife looks at him in amazement. with / using I see the girl with her father. with / using I write with a pen. with / using Not many words start with X. with / using She's given me a book with many photos. with / using The horse kicks. with / using The old man sits with a pipe in his mouth. with / using The sugar has been mixed with salt. with / using They are battling with the elements. with / using They want to eat with us. with / using We are drinking coffee with milk. with / using We hear with our ears. with / using We will fail even with your help. with / using A good idea came into her head. within Are we in agreement? within Beethoven was born in 1770. within Cats don't like being in water. within He fell into the river. within His fingers are stuck in the handle of a cup. within I don't want to travel in this weather. within I have some thoughts in my mind. within I will repeat this in Greek. within In addition, I see a new problem. within In fact I see two problems. within It started raining heavily while the reporter was talking. within I've translated the article into French. within My heart is in my chest. within Put the rubbish in the bin. within She wrote the book in three weeks. within The building is on fire. within The children are sitting in a circle. within The plants are in pots. within The prices are in euros. within The sun is in the sky. within We are in danger. within We are passing into a new era. within We are waiting in the car. within We don't see the stars in the day. within We spent an hour in conversation. within We visited the museum in February. within He fell asleep without meaning to. without I shall decorate the entire house without help. without I walked through the rain with no umbrella. without The painting fell down for no apparent reason. without The researcher left without discovering the answer. without There's no smoke without fire. without You are totally without mercy. without Your wife likes her coffee without milk. without

Syntax

Simple sentences

Complex sentences

Clause coordination

Clause-level conjunctions such as ku "and", ua "or", or ehe "but, however" are placed clause-initially. Note that these conjunctions cannot be used to connect noun phrases.

tahi tohyo ku nahi pina

boy brave CL.CONJ girl intelligent

The boy is brave and the girl is intelligent.

ima kihu saman ehe pakyotlai

now weather sun-ADJ however storm-IMM

Now the weather is sunny, but a storm will come soon.

Coordination of noun phrases

Non-subject noun phrases are coordinated using the conjunction ma "and" (sometimes "with").

yomaye na ke tanka ma pato anya

day-PST 1sg O eagle CONJ duck see

I saw an eagle and a duck yesterday.

kinti ke tsaka kamyo ma'a yosu sapotle ma siuem muya

squirrel O house 3pl.POSS with moss soft-REL and leaf.PL make

The squirrels make their nest comfortable with soft moss and leaves.

ona ma ota kyosanku

mother and father fornicate-RECP

Mother and father have sex [with each other].

ta ma'a na ke molihuelatli

2sg with 1sg O forest-LOC-MOT-FUT

You and I will go to the forest together.

Noun phrases can be presented as alternatives to each other with the conjunction ua "or; other". This conjunction can be used with both subjects and non-subjects. The conjunction ue "(exclusive) either X or Y" is used to delimit other nouns from the conjunction phrase.

ta ke nasi ua poma inamyo

2sg O pear or apple eat-PERM

You may eat an apple or a pear.

tsola ue otso itsikua mataye

fox either.X.or.Y wolf PROX-bird kill-PST

It must have been a fox or a wolf that killed this bird.

Contrastive coordination of noun phrases ("but") is achieved with ehe "but; however" (or me more informally) if the noun phrases appear in subject position.

yomaye mita'u ehek mitana ke kutsu kapya

day-PST dog-MASC but-NEG O meat receive

The male dog but not the female dog received meat yesterday.

na itlaka mek inaka unya

1sg PROX-man but-NEG PROX-woman know

I know this man, but not this woman.

Complement clauses

Relative clauses

Relative clauses, i.e. subordinated clauses acting as an attribute to a noun phrase, are marked with the relativizer -tle (or -le if the last syllable has tl). A pronoun referring to the relativized noun is retained within the relative clause:

na ka naka amyatle pesoue

1sg O woman liked-REL meet-VOL

I want to meet a girl who is friendly.

naku nayo ke yakokua na tikuyetle inapua

sister 1sg.POSS O strawberry-all 1sg pick-PST-REL eat-PFV

My sister has eaten all the strawberries that I picked.

kam tananitle ke teki tlalitli

3pl fight-nice-REL O enemy defeat-FUT

They who fight well will defeat the enemy.

Evidentiality

	affix	from
direct participation (dir)	-	-
sensory perception (sens)	-	-
inferred from evidence (evid)	-	-
assumption; guess (ass)	-ho	toho
hearsay; fiction (rep)	-tai	ata

The first set of evidentiality markers indicated that the evidence was gained directly by the speaker via their senses. There were three such markers:

-xx-, which denotes that the speaker witnessed the action visually;
-xx-, which denotes that the speaker tasted or smelled the evidence and
-xx-, which denotes that the speaker felt or heard the evidence.

The second set of markers indicated that the evidence is secondhand and not directly derived from the speaker's experience. There were two such markers:

-xx-, which indicates that the information was received via hearsay and may or may not be accurate and
-xx-, which indicates that the speaker has no doubts about the information he has received.

The third set indicated that the information was not personally experienced but was inferred from indirect evidence. There were three of these markers:

-xx-, which indicated that there was physical evidence;
-xx-, which indicates that the information is general knowledge and
-xx-, which indicates that the information is inferred or assumed based on the speaker's past experience of similar situations.

kalama

kalama - speak; talk; utter
kasa - house; home; abode, dwelling
kawi - coffee
kome - eat; consume
ko - he, she [3sg]
kute - listen; hear
le - past tense [PST]
lo - many (more than one) / -lo - plural [PL]
loka - place; location
ma - what; which
maka - do; make; cause
miyo - feline; cat; lion; tiger
ne - no; not; negative [NEG]
ni - you [2sg]
o - direct object [DO]
oma - mother; grand-
opa - father; grand-
sa - future tense [FUT]
sapa - know; understand
ta - be big; large; grand
tale - give; transfer; donate
wa - I, me [1sg]
waka - bovine; cattle; livestock
wite - see; look; watch; observe
yo - have; possess; hold / -yo - possessive; genitive
yu - (be) in; at; on; by; near

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