tlika

tlika
	nata (nta)	tlaka (ta)	naka (na)
	nata relative	tlaka man; male	naka woman; female
hya-	hyanta grandparent	hyata grandfather	hyana grandmother
o-	onta parent	ota father	ona mother
ue-	uenta parent's sibling	ueta uncle	uena aunt
-ku	ntaku sibling	taku brother	naku sister
-hi	ntahi child	tahi son; boy	nahi daughter; girl
-hya	ntahya grandchild	tahya grandson	nahya granddaughter
-ue	ntaue cousin	taue male cousin	naue female cousin
-hue	ntahue nibling	tahue nephew	nahue niece

pa'a

	na'o	ta'o	ha'o
plosive pana (rain)	pa	ta	ka
nasal maua (flower)	ma	na	nya
affricate tlatsa (fire)	tsa	tla
continuant honu (turtle)	sa	ha	la
semivowel yasa (wind)	ua	ya	a

noun phrases

The basic noun phrase in Kala is PREPOSITION DETERMINER RELATIVE-CLAUSE NOUN DESCRIPTIVE-VERB. Depending on context, this is fairly predominant with a few exceptions

opinion-size-age-shape-color-origin-material-purpose Noun

ukum


Kala	number	English	ordinal	multiple	fractional
na'o	1	one	kina'o first	tina'o once	-
ueta'o	12	twelve	kiueta'o twelfth	tiueta'o twelve times	iueta'o a twelfth
yauema'o yama'o	54	fifty four	kiyama'o fifty fourth	tiyama'o 54 times	iyama'o a fifty fourth
nyetsa'o	106	one hundred (and) six	kinyetsa'o 106^th	tinyetsa'o 106 times	inyetsa'o a 106^th
katle'o	7000	seven thousand	kikatle'o seven thousandth	tikatle'o 7000 times	ikatle'o 1/7000

genitive

	singular	plural
1	nai	kai
2	tai	ai
3	lai	mai

kata hangul

	a	e	i	o	u
k	가	거	기	고	구
l	라	러	리	로	루
m	마	머	미	모	무
n	나	너	니	노	누
p	바	버	비	보	부
s	사	서	시	소	수
t	다	더	디	도	두
w	와	워	위	-	-
y	야	여	-	요	유
-	아	어	이	오	우

hanmoya

	a	ai	ya	e	ye	o	ao	yo	ua	uai	ue	u	i	yao
k	가	개	갸	거	겨	고	과	교	구	귀	규	그	기	-
nk	까	-	-	꺼	-	꼬	-	-	-	-	-	끄	끼	-
n	나	내	냐	너	녀	노	놔	뇨	누	뉘	뉴	느	니	-
t	다	대	-	더	-	도	돠	-	-	-	-	-	디	-
nt	따	-	-	떠	-	또	-	-	-	-	-	-	띠	-
l	라	래	-	러	-	로	롸	-	-	-	-	-	리	-
m	마	매	먀	머	며	모	뫄	묘	무	뮈	뮤	므	미	-
p	바	배	뱌	버	벼	보	봐	뵤	부	뷔	뷰	브	비	-
mp	빠	-	-	뻐	-	뽀	-	-	-	-	-	쁘	삐	-
s	사	새	-	서	-	소	솨	-	수	쉬	슈	스	시	-
-	아	애	야	어	여	오	와	요	우	위	유	으	이	-
ts	자	재	-	저	-	조	좌	-	주	쥐	쥬	즈	지	-
tl	타	태	-	터	-	토	톼	-	-	-	-	-	티	-
h	하	해	햐	허	혀	호	화	효	후	휘	휴	흐	히	-

Derivational morphology

Noun → adjective: Suffix: -un
Adjective → noun: Suffix: -iya
Noun → verb: Suffix: -ek / -ra
Verb → noun: Suffix: -a / a-
Verb → adjective: Suffix: -u
Adjective → adverb: Suffix: -ha / -ak
One who X's (e.g. paint → painter): Suffix: -in
Place where (e.g. wine → winery): Suffix: -da
Diminutive: Suffix: -XX
Augmentative: Suffix: -XX

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subject/object

s/o	-	1s	2s	3s	1p	2p	3p
1s	-an	-	-anti	-anu	-anuk	-anut	-anum
2s	-ti	-eyan	-	-eyu	-eyuk	-eyut	-eyum
3s	-u	-ilan	-ati	-ilu	-iluk	-ilut	-ilum
1p	-uk	-ukan	-ukti	-uku	-	-ukut	-ukum
2p	-ut	-utan	-ute	-utu	-utuk	-	-utum
3p	-um	-uman	-umti	-umu	-umuk	-umut	-

Semitic abjads

Abjads
Name	Transliteration	IPA	Syriac	Hebrew	Arabic
alha	a	a / ʔ	ܐ‬	א‬	ا‬
ba	b	b	ܒ‬	ב‬	ب‬
gamla	g	ɡ / ɣ	ܓ‬	ג‬‬	ج گ‬‬
dal	d	d / ð	ܕ‬	ד‬‬	د ذ‬‬
ha	h	h / ɦ	ܗ‬	ה‬‬	ه‬‬
wa	w, u, o	w / u: / o:	ܘ‬	ו‬‬	و‬‬
zayin	z	z	ܙ‬	ז‬‬‬	ز‬‬‬
khet	kh	ɦ / χ	ܚ	ח‬‬‬	ح خ‬‬
tet	t	t	ܛ‬	ט‬	ط ظ‬‬
yad	y, i	j / i: / e:	ܝ‬	י‬‬	ي‬
kapu	k	k / x	ܟ‬	כ ך‬‬‬	ك‬‬‬
lam	l	l	ܠ	ל‬‬‬	ل‬‬‬
mem	m	m	ܡ‬	מ ם‬‬	م‬‬
nun	n	n	ܢ‬	נ ן‬‬	ن‬‬
samka	s	s	ܣ‬	ס‬‬‬	س‬‬‬
eyin	e	e / ʔ	ܥ‬	ע‬‬	ع غ‬‬‬
pe	p	p / f	ܦ‬	פ ף‬‬	ف‬ پ‬‬
tsad	ts	ts	ܨ‬	צ ץ‬‬	ص ض‬‬
qupa	q	ʔ / q	ܩ‬	ק‬‬‬	ق‬‬‬
ra	r	ɾ / r	ܪ‬	ר‬‬‬	ر‬‬‬
shin	sh	ʃ	ܫ‬	ש‬‬	ش‬‬
ta	t	t	ܬ‬	ת‬‬	ت ث‬‬

word gen kala

C=ptkmnshcxl
N=bdg
A=aeiou
W=12
Y=345
P=pkmnh
S=pkmnhsc

c|ts
x|tl
b|mp
d|nt
g|nk
1|ua
2|ue
3|ya
4|ye
5|yo
tu|ta
lu|la

CA
CACA
CANA
CAPY
CASW
CAW
CAY
NA
NACA
NAPY
NASW
NAW
NAY
PY
PYCA
PYNA
PYSW
SW
SWCA
SWNA
SWPY
WCA
WNA
YCA
YNA

tense

	present	past	future
simple	-e	-i	-o
perfect	-le	-li	-lo
obligatory	-se		-so
immediate		-ib
possible			-go

case

**Grammatical Cases**
Name	Suffix	Example	English Gloss
Nominative	-	amul	the man (subject)
Accusative	-wa / -u	mulwa	the man (object)
Dative	bi-	bimul	for, to, on behalf of the man
Ablative	-sha	mulesha	from the man
Genitive	-ya / -ai	mulya	of the man
Locative	-da	muleda	at, in, on the man
Instrumental/Comitative	-ha / -ak	mulha	using/with the man

**Grammatical Cases**
Name	Suffix	Example	English Gloss
Nominative	-	eqesh	the house (subject)
Accusative	-wa / -u	eshwa	the house (object)
Dative	bi-	biqesh	for, to, on behalf of the house
Ablative	-sha	essha	from the house
Genitive	-ya / -ai	eshai	of the house
Locative	-da	eshda	at, in, on the house
Instrumental/Comitative	-ha / -ak	eshak	using/with the house

format

muku - /muːˈkʊ/

knife; blade; weapon; arms - "sword"

evidentiality

Example	Translation	Evidential
hi·dawʔaƛwa·d	"I hear he found it"	-wa·t, hearsay
pu·pu·q̓adʔi	"he's blowing a whistle"	-q̓adi, auditory
č̓apaccaqil	"It looks like a canoe"	-caqił, uncertain visual evidence, as trying to make out something at a distance
haʔuk̓aƛpi·dic	"I see you ate"	-pi·t, inference from physical evidence
dudu·k̓aƛx̌a·š	"He's probably singing"	-x̌a·-š, inferred probability

Morphosyntax

Simple declarative sentences usually have a subject-object-verb word order, though occasionally adverbs fall outside this paradigm and various particles can free-up word order. Kala has four grammatical persons — first, second, third, and obviative. The third person is used for proximate nouns, while obviates are non-present or demoted in comparison to a third person. Inanimate objects cannot be the proximate third person. Kala is an agglutinative language. It uses various affixes, mostly suffixes, to change the meaning and grammatical function of words.

Nouns are inflected for number.

animacy

All nouns are classified as either animate or inanimate. Generally it is easy to determine whether a noun will be animate, although some inherently inanimate objects such as...

Arguments of verbs are marked with a (patient marker) transitivity prefix/particle which must agree with the animacy of its arguments. Even in stories in which a grammatically inanimate object are markedly anthropomorphized, such as talking flowers, speakers will not use animate agreement markers with them.

verbs

The Kala verbal template contains a stem with several suffixes. The structure of the verb stem in Kala can be roughly broken down into the root, the medial, and the final. The root and final tend to be required elements. In Kala, the category of verb may also include words that would be categorized as adjectives or quantifiers in English.

notes

intransitive has NO object / transitive has object

Locative verbs

Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. In English, locations are indicated with adverbs and/or prepositions, this is not the case in Kala however. To express locative concepts in Kala, the following verbs/affixes are used:

The general locative (-hue) which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”.

na tsakahue nayo

1s home-LOC 1s.GEN

I'm in my home. / I'm at home.

Here are some common verbs used as adpositions:

-hue – in; at; on (general locative)
nahe – within; inside
nyaue – out; outside of; exterior
ma’e – before; in front of
pue – behind; after; in back of
ua’e – above; over; on
tahe – below; under; beneath; bottom
ya’e – near; close to
uaye – away (from)
maye – between; among

The above are used as prepositions, but can also function strictly as verbs.

mita tahe yempa ina

dog under table eat

The dog is eating under the table.

mita ke yempa tahe

dog table be.under

The dog is under the table.

The suffix -la (from yala “go; walk; travel”) forms an allative (or motive) preposition, expressing movement in the indicated direction, stopping at the position indicated by the locative:

nahela topu – into bed
pahela ke ana tayo – onto your head
tsayela tsaka – up to the house

The locative/allative pair works like English on/onto, in/into, but in Kala this distinction is made for all locatives: you must distinguish between them:

pue’ela kuanu – go behind a bush - (motion implied → allative)
pue kuanu koma – hide behind a bush - (no motion → locative)

Kala uses nouns to express more complex spatial relationships (these words are adverbs in English) this means that for example the word mokua should be interpreted as something like the everywhere or all places. So a phrase like mokua na'eta anya (meaning I see you everywhere) is literally I see you in all places. Likewise, yosohue na'eta anya means I see you at (the/my) left (area).

mokua – everywhere; all places
hina – here; hither
uana – there (near you)
yemua – there (over there)

The above nouns never take the -hue suffix.

extra

Adessive case adjacent location near/at/by the house location mita tsaka ya'e dog house near/by Apudessive case location next to something next to the house location Inessive case inside something inside the house location mita tsaka nahe dog house inside Intrative case between something between the houses location mita tsaka-m maye dog house-pl between Locative case location at/on/in the house location mita tsaka-hue dog at/on/in the house Pertingent case in contact with something touching the house location Subessive case under something under/below the house location mita tsaka tahe dog house under/below Superessive case on the surface on (top of) the house location mita tsaka ua'e dog house on [top of] Ablative case movement away from something away from the house motion from mita tsaka uaye-la dog house away-from Delative case movement from the surface from (the top of) the house motion from Egressive case marking the beginning of a movement or time beginning from the house motion from Elative case out of something out of the house motion from mita tsaka uaye-la dog house out-of-go Initiative case starting point of an action beginning from the house motion from Allative case movement onto something onto the house motion to mita tsaka ua'e-la dog house on [top of]-go Allative case movement to (the adjacency of) something / movement onto something to the house motion to mita tsaka ka'e-la dog house toward-go Illative case movement into something into the house motion to mita tsaka nahe-la dog house into-go Lative case movement to something to/into the house motion to Sublative case movement onto the surface or below something on(to) the house / under the house motion to Terminative case marking the end of a movement or time as far as the house motion to mita tsaka tsaye-la dog house up-to-go Perlative case movement through or along through/along the house motion via Prolative case movement using a surface or way by way of/through the house motion via Prosecutive case across or along along the road motion via mita misa saye-la dog road along-go Vialis case through or by by way of the house, through the house motion via Ablative case all-round indirect case concerning the house relation Aversive case avoiding or fear avoiding the house relation Benefactive case for, for the benefit of, intended for for the house relation Causal case because, because of because of the house relation Causal-final case efficient or final cause for a house relation Comitative case in company of something with the house relation Dative case shows direction or recipient for/to the house relation Distributive case distribution by piece per house relation Distributive-temporal case how often something happens daily; on Sundays relation Genitive case shows relationship, possession of the house relation Ornative case endowment with something equipped with a house relation Possessed case possession by something the house is owned by someone relation Privative case lacking something without a house relation Semblative case Similarity to something that tree is like a house relation Sociative case along with something, together with something with the house relation Partitive case used for amounts three (of the) houses semantic Vocative case used for addressing someone, with or without a preposition Hey, father! O father! Father! semantic Abessive case the lack of something without the house state Adverbial case being as something as a house state Comparative case similarity with something similar to the house state Equative case comparison with something like the house state Essive case temporary state of being as the house state Essive-formal case marking a condition as a quality (a kind of shape) as a house state Essive-modal case marking a condition as a quality (a way of being) as a house state Exessive case marking a transition from a condition from being a house (i.e., "it stops being a house") state Formal case marking a condition as a quality as a house state Identical case showing that something is identical being the house state Orientative case oriented towards something turned towards the house state Revertive case backwards to something against the house state Translative case change of a condition into another (turning) into a house state Essive case specifying days and dates on Monday; on November 5th time Temporal case specifying a time at seven [o'clock]; at midnight; at New Year's time

Syntax

Simple sentences

Complex sentences

Clause coordination

Clause-level conjunctions such as ku "and", ua "or", or ehe "but, however" are placed clause-initially. Note that these conjunctions cannot be used to connect noun phrases.

tahi tohyo ku nahi pina

boy brave CL.CONJ girl intelligent

The boy is brave and the girl is intelligent.

ima kihu saman ehe pakyotlai

now weather sun-ADJ however storm-IMM

Now the weather is sunny, but a storm will come soon.

Coordination of noun phrases

Non-subject noun phrases are coordinated using the conjunction ma "and" (sometimes "with").

yomaye na ke tanka ma pato anya

day-PST 1sg O eagle CONJ duck see

I saw an eagle and a duck yesterday.

kinti ke tsaka kamyo ma'a yosu sapotle ma siuem muya

squirrel O house 3pl.POSS with moss soft-REL and leaf.PL make

The squirrels make their nest comfortable with soft moss and leaves.

ona ma ota kyosanku

mother and father fornicate-RECP

Mother and father have sex [with each other].

ta ma'a na ke molihuelatli

2sg with 1sg O forest-LOC-MOT-FUT

You and I will go to the forest together.

Noun phrases can be presented as alternatives to each other with the conjunction ua "or; other". This conjunction can be used with both subjects and non-subjects. The conjunction ue "(exclusive) either X or Y" is used to delimit other nouns from the conjunction phrase.

ta ke nasi ua poma inamyo

2sg O pear or apple eat-PERM

You may eat an apple or a pear.

tsola ue otso itsikua mataye

fox either.X.or.Y wolf PROX-bird kill-PST

It must have been a fox or a wolf that killed this bird.

Contrastive coordination of noun phrases ("but") is achieved with ehe "but; however" (or me more informally) if the noun phrases appear in subject position.

yomaye mita'u ehek mitana ke kutsu kapya

day-PST dog-MASC but-NEG O meat receive

The male dog but not the female dog received meat yesterday.

na itlaka mek inaka unya

1sg PROX-man but-NEG PROX-woman know

I know this man, but not this woman.

Complement clauses

Relative clauses

Relative clauses, i.e. subordinated clauses acting as an attribute to a noun phrase, are marked with the relativizer -tle (or -le if the last syllable has tl). A pronoun referring to the relativized noun is retained within the relative clause:

na ka naka amyatle pesoue

1sg O woman liked-REL meet-VOL

I want to meet a girl who is friendly.

naku nayo ke yakokua na tikuyetle inapua

sister 1sg.POSS O strawberry-all 1sg pick-PST-REL eat-PFV

My sister has eaten all the strawberries that I picked.

kam tananitle ke teki tlalitli

3pl fight-nice-REL O enemy defeat-FUT

They who fight well will defeat the enemy.

Evidentiality

	affix	from
direct participation (dir)	-	-
sensory perception (sens)	-	-
inferred from evidence (evid)	-	-
assumption; guess (ass)	-ho	toho
hearsay; fiction (rep)	-tai	ata

The first set of evidentiality markers indicated that the evidence was gained directly by the speaker via their senses. There were three such markers:

-xx-, which denotes that the speaker witnessed the action visually;
-xx-, which denotes that the speaker tasted or smelled the evidence and
-xx-, which denotes that the speaker felt or heard the evidence.

The second set of markers indicated that the evidence is secondhand and not directly derived from the speaker's experience. There were two such markers:

-xx-, which indicates that the information was received via hearsay and may or may not be accurate and
-xx-, which indicates that the speaker has no doubts about the information he has received.

The third set indicated that the information was not personally experienced but was inferred from indirect evidence. There were three of these markers:

-xx-, which indicated that there was physical evidence;
-xx-, which indicates that the information is general knowledge and
-xx-, which indicates that the information is inferred or assumed based on the speaker's past experience of similar situations.

kalama

kalama - speak; talk; utter
kasa - house; home; abode, dwelling
kawi - coffee
kome - eat; consume
ko - he, she [3sg]
kute - listen; hear
le - past tense [PST]
lo - many (more than one) / -lo - plural [PL]
loka - place; location
ma - what; which
maka - do; make; cause
miyo - feline; cat; lion; tiger
ne - no; not; negative [NEG]
ni - you [2sg]
o - direct object [DO]
oma - mother; grand-
opa - father; grand-
sa - future tense [FUT]
sapa - know; understand
ta - be big; large; grand
tale - give; transfer; donate
wa - I, me [1sg]
waka - bovine; cattle; livestock
wite - see; look; watch; observe
yo - have; possess; hold / -yo - possessive; genitive
yu - (be) in; at; on; by; near

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