Phonology

kalama has nine consonants (/p, t, k, s, m, n, l, j, w/) and five vowels (/a, e, i, o, u/). Stress is word final.

consonants

	Labial	Coronal	Dorsal
Nasal	m	n
Plosive	p	t	k
Fricative		s
Approximant	w	l	j (y)

vowels

Vowels	Front	Back
Close	i	u
Mid	e	o
Open	a

diphthongs

There are two diphthongs [ai̯] ai, and [au̯] au. These are rare and typically only occur word-finally.

syllable structure

All syllables are of the form (C)V(N), that is, optional consonant + vowel + optional final nasal, or V, CV, VN, CVN.

phonotactics

A few syllables sequences are disallowed; /ji, wu, wo/. Also, a syllable-final nasal may not occur before /m/ or /n/ in the same root.

allophony

The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, kalama allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.

Word Order

kalama has a strict word order. The general word order is:

subject noun phrase — verb phrase (— object noun phrase)

yano payo - "John runs"

mailya sami yano - "Maria hears John"

A noun phrase has this order:

(determiners —) noun (- quantifiers) (— adjectives)

nano san ta - "The three large men"

ona aku malu - "The many small women"

A verb phrase has this order:

(leading verb —) verb (— tense/mood) (— adverb)

nesa le kome sali - "needed to eat quick(ly)"

nesa sa kome lento - "will have to eat slow(ly)"

A prepositional phrase generally follows what it modifies, and has this order:

noun phrase — prepositional verb

o kusina loka yu - "in the kitchen"

o wala loka note-naka yu - "after midnight"

Nouns

Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with -lo to show plurality, and possessiveness with -yo.

Determiners

Determiners in kalama precede the noun they modify.

kula - all
pu - this; these
su - that; those
xxx - every; each
xxx - whichever; whatever
xxx - some; several; a few
ne - no; none; zero

aku - many; much (one hundred)
malu - few; a little
xxx - more
xxx - less; fewer
xxx - other
xxx - same
xxx - such

Pronouns

kalama has three basic pronouns; wa [1sg], ni [2sg], and ko [3sg]. These do not indicate gender.

Verbs

Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles.

Tense

Past tense is indicated by the particle le following the verb. Future tense is indicated by the particle sa.

ko ne kome le

3sg NEG eat PST

He didn't eat.

walo wite sa ko

1pl see FUT 3sg

We will see her.

Questions

Number

sunya - zero; nothing
iwa - one; single; alone
ili - two; double; duo
isan - three; triple
isi - four
ipen - five
iwe - six
ina - seven
ipa - eight
inun - nine
iye - ten
aku / ku - hundred
mila - thousand

palalo

a

ama - but; yet; however
awa - or; either
ayo - any; whatever; whichever; whatsoever

e

enpo - be away from; move away

i

ila - be near; move toward; in direction of

k

kasa - house; building; apartment; room; residence
kata - speak; talk; language
kome - eat; consume
koye - some; a few; a little
kula - all; whole; entire; every; complete

l

lento - slow(ly); gradual; tardy
loka - place; location; spot; point
loma - bump, nose, hill, mountain, button

m

ma - interrogative particle
malu - be small; little; tiny
muki - ocean; sea; bay

n

nama - sleep; rest; relax
nano - man; male
ne - no; not; negative
nesa - need; necessary; must; require; oblige
note - night; darkness

o

o - direct object particle
oma - female parent
ona - woman; female
opa - male parent

p

pala - word; morpheme; unit of language
pan - food; bread
paya - white; whiteness
payo - run; move quickly
peka - run; flee; move quickly
pu - this; these

s

sali - quick(ly); fast; hurry; rapid
sami - hear; listen
simu - letter (of the alphabet)
su - that; those

t

ta - be large; big; grand
tani - be aware of; know; understand

u

u - and; also; too; as well

w

wite - see; look; watch; observe

y

ya - vocative / imperative particle
yati - hand; arm
yo / -yo - have; hold; contain
yu - be in; at; on
yuma - day; daylight
yunta - gather; collect; amass

phrases

wa tani ko

1sg know 3sg

I know her.

ma loka kasa niyo

Q place house 2sg.GEN

Where is your house?

Kalama