Siye Verbal Morphology
Verb and Participle Structure
Verb Structure
The minimal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, one verb root, a pronominal number suffix, and a polarity-aspect-mood (PAM) suffix. The maximal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, a verb root, a pronominal number suffix, a causative or portative suffix, a "coverbal" suffix, a directional suffix, and a PAM suffix. Relational and coordinative suffixes are often classed as verbal suffix due to the verb-final nature of Siye, but both types of suffix are more accurately described as clause-final suffixes, The explicit negative suffix is a mobile suffix, but less used than one might expect. Certain Siye verbs also have a grammaticalized declined noun as a preposed adjective.
Prefixes
The two prefixes are the pronominal prefixes: one for the object pronoun, and one for the subject pronoun. Pronominal prefixes work on a nominative-accusative basis.
There are two conjugations in Standard Siye: the yi-conjugation and the ya-conjugation. The yi-conjugation is the basic conjugation, while the ya-conjugation is used when the object of the clause is topicalized. The object prefix and the subject prefix can combine according to the rules of vowel dominance. If you are correcting a text using non-standard pronominal prefixes, this can be very confusing.
1. Object Prefix
The object prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical object of the clause. The object prefix can change depending on whether the verb is yi-conjugation or ya-conjugation. The last form in each list is the ya-conjugation form. The others are yi-conjugation forms.
| Object Prefixes | yi-forms | ya-forms | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | le | la | |
| 2nd | pe- | sa- | |
| 3rd animate | i-, y- | ya- | /i-/ is used before a subject prefix beginning in a consonant. /y-/ is used before a subject prefix beginning in a vowel. /ya-/ appears before either a consonant or a vowel. /n/ is not an object prefix; it is the epenthetic residue of an elided initial vowel. |
| 3rd inanimate | e- | a- | /n/ is not an object prefix; it is the epenthetic residue of an elided initial vowel. |
| 3rd definite | me- | /me-/ is the definite object prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause. | |
| 3rd indefinite | mu- | mu- | /mu-/ is the object prefix before all subject prefixes except /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ (for its replacement, see below). Many Siye-speakers despise this exception as a neologism. Such persons prefer to rely on nouns and pronouns to avoid ambiguity. |
| 3rd indefinite | tum- | tum- | In Standard Siye, /tum-/ replaces /mu-/ before the 3rd person suffixes /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ in order to eliminate ambiguity. There are many Scholars, however, including the "Mooneys", who despise this neologism. |
| reflexive | um- | um- | Although the reflexive prefix is listed as an object prefix, reflexivity is a valency-changing operation. A reflexive verb form, therefore, although it has the prefixes of a transitive verb, is actually intransitive. |
2. Subject Prefix
The subject prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical subject of the clause, for both transitive and intransitive verbs. The subject prefix is identical to the yi-conjugation form of the object prefix.
-le-, -l-: 1st person (1)
/-l-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
-pe-: 2nd person (2)
/-p-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
-i-, -y-, -hi-, -0-: 3rd person animate (3)
/-y-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots. -hi- appears between /tum-/ or /um-/ and a consonant-initial vowel root. Vowel dominance and the weak position of /i/ within the hierarchy often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-i-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /i/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs, which vowel dominance does not effect, maintains the subject prefix /i-/. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs.
-e-, -en-: 3rd person inanimate (4)
/-en-/ breaks the rules of vowel dominance by appearing as a separate syllable before vowel-initial verb roots. Vowel dominance and the weak position of /e/ within the hierarchy often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-e-/ (although it is retained in the portmanteau pronominal prefix /ye-/ '3-4'. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /e/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs, which vowel dominance does not effect, maintains the subject prefix /e-/. /-en-/ occurs before vowel-initial verb roots. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs.
-me-: 3rd person definite (DEF)
/me-/ is the definite subject prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
-mu-, -m-: 3rd person indefinite (INDEF)
/-m-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
A note on zero-marking: on occasion, in the marketplace, one will hear the use of forbidden forms. The zeal of the merchants is to be commended, but their habit of shortening forms is a moral weakness.
Furthermore, the elision of an initial /i/ or /e/ as the object or subject of a verb can lead to confusion. If the busty, lusty, and loud village girl asks /yetelo maputesumo/, how is one to know if she means seeds /yete/ (inanimate) or fruit /yete/ (animate)? She should say /emaputesumo/ for the former, and /imaputesumo/ for latter. Sadly, such grammatical integrity is seldom found in those who use poor grammar consciously.
/ke-/ is the infinitive suffix. Its pronominal number suffix is always -pe-.
Root
Siye verb roots are the "heart" of the verb. The roots are often less defined than equivalent English verbs, because both causative suffix and the directional suffixes derive new stems from the root. The meaning of the stem may not be apparent from the meaning of the root. The primary accent of the verb is on the first syllable of the verb root.
Consonant-Initial Root
Consonant-initial roots are the most common form of roots.
Vowel-Initial Roots
Vowel-initial roots are less common than consonant-initial roots. The rules of vowel dominance are suspended at the ligature between the subject pronoun prefixes and the vowel-initial roots.
Suppletive Roots
Although there are a limited number of suppletive roots in Siye, they include most of the most common verbs. Many of these verbs are highly productive in their derivational interactions between the root, the causative suffix, and the directional suffixes, so it can appear to the learner that the Siye verb consists of nothing but suppletive verbs. One former suppletive root, nu/mu 'give', spontaneously regularized in the period 2200-2210. The forms derived before this date, however, retain the suppletive form. Eventually, no doubt, new regular forms wil arise.
If a verb root is suppletive, the suppletion marks a division between the perfective and imperfective aspects.
Extended Verbal Roots
The only verbal root extension documented so far is the augmentive suffix -po.
im yimpuna.
The wind is blowing
impo yimpopusuna.
The North Wind blew mightily.
Suffixes
Grammatical Number
4. Grammatical Number
The grammatical number suffix in Standard Siye works on a nominative-accusative basis if the verb is imperfective and therefore agrees with the subject of a transitive clause (there is only one noun in an intransitive clause and therefore no choice). If the verb is perfective, however, the grammatical number suffix works on an ergative-absolutive basis and agrees with the grammatical object of the transitive clause. When the noun with which the grammatical number suffix must agree is indefinite or unknown, the default number is singular. The grammatical number suffix is obligatory.
-ku-: null number (NUL)
The null grammatical number is a fiction of members of the Guild of Scholars who prefer systemacity over the duty to reflect the necessary distinctions for effective commerce. A Terrestrial analogy would be those letters of the Sanskrit alphabet which do not exist in any extant words but appear in the charts to eliminate asymmetry.
-pu-: singular number (also indefinite) (SG)
-so-, -s-: dual number (DU)
/-s-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/.
-ke-: paucal number (PAUC)
Paucal number is generally 3-5 instances of the noun to which it applies, ut context may dictate a different understanding.
-lo-, -l-: plural number (PL)
/-l-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/.
Plural number is generally more than 5 instances of the noun to which it applies, but context may dictate a different understanding.
-ka-: pantic number (i.e., all); sometimes ethnic (PAN)
When (-ka- is used as an ethnic suffix (and here it must be stated that 'ethnic' here could be defined either linguistically or genetically), it is important to not combine this sense with the basic pantic sense.
-pi-: exclusive marker (replaces dual, paucal, plural) (EXCL)
The exclusive marker -pi- may replace the dual, paucal, or plural number if and only if the dual, paucal, or plural number is marked on the noun with which the verb agrees in number, or with the ethnic sense of -ka- as a nominal grammatical number.
-pe- is the pronominal number suffix which always accompanies the infinitive prefix ke-.
/-k-/ (null, paucal, pantic), /-p-/ (singular, exclusive, infinitive) are found before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/ in non-standard Siye. The Guild of Scholars, however, has ruled the ambiguity too confusing for Standard Siye. The primary use, therefore, is in folk songs and poetry, and especially puns.
Causative
5. Causative
-sum-: causative
The causative suffix is a valence-changing, and often derivational, suffix which changes an intransitive verb to a transitive verb, and a transitive to a ditransitive. The presence or absence of the causative suffix is the cause of many allomorphs of the next category of suffix.
-yosam-: portative
The portative suffix is almost identical to the causative suffix. The difference lies in the implication of the portative suffix that the subject or causor performed the action herself in a direct physical way.
le nesakam eletupusumsuna
I sent the letter (probably via messenger)
le nesakam eletupuyosamsuna
I sent the letter (it was in my pocket)
ilesupusumsuma.
I sent him.
a ileyempusumtuna.
I showed it to him.
le ya iletupusumnana.
I lifted him. I promoted him.
le ya iletupuyosamnana.
I lifted him.
Converbals
6. Converbals
This is a rich category. If a particular converbal suffix triggers a particular aspect (perfective or imperfective), this does not mean that one will never find that suffix coupled with the other aspect. The use of the uncharacteristic aspect. however, does indicate markedness. There is only one converbal suffix per verb.
-hi-, -nam-: 'begin to X' (INCEPTIVE/INCP). -hi- occurs after -sum-; -nam- occurs everywhere else.
-hi-/-nam- with the imperfective aspect indicates 'to begin Xing'.
Umloya sili nukepu enulonam' 'nama.
They began to build the tower.
-hi-/-nam- with the perfective indicates 'to begin to X but not finish Xing'
Umloya sili nukepu ekepunamnana.
They began but did not finish building the tower.
-hom-/-mnu-: 'to do X lasciviously'
itupumnukina.
She danced lasciviously.
-(h)u-, -tam-: 'continue to X' (CONTINUATIVE/CONT). -u occurs after -s- and -l-; -hu occurs after -sum-; -tam occurs everywhere else.
-(h)u-/-tam- triggers the imperfective aspect.
Tupiloya esil' 'u' 'nama.
The birds continued singing.
Tupikaya esika' 'tam' 'nama.
All the birds continued singing.
-ka-: 'have resolved to X' (INTENTIVE/INTNT)
-ka- always triggers the perfective aspect. -ka- and -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
Kumayam sili nukepu eyempu' 'ka' 'na.
The Lord had resolved to see the tower.
-kaku-: 'to waver on doing X'
-kaku- with the perfective aspect indicates 'to waver on doing X'
lepetusokakusuna.
You hesitated to send the two of us.
-kaku- with the imperfective aspect indicates'to be unreliable at Xing'
eyuluwepukakutuma.
He is an unreliable tracker.
-kom- 'promise to X' (PROM)
La letumpusum' 'kom' 'na.
He promised to marry me..
-like- 'fail to X' (FALL) Inverse: 'succeed in Xing'
pe yeteka ipetomka' 'like' 'sunaya ...
Because you have failed to sell all the fruit …
umloya lusili ekepu' 'like' 'sunu.
The men have succeeded in building the city.
-lo-/-te- 'to practice doing X' (PRAC) The form -lo-/-te derives from the verb lote- 'to play'. -lo- must occur with the imperfective aspect, while -te- must occur with the perfective aspect. The mandatory association of -te- with the perfective aspect differentiates this -te- from the desiderative suffix -te-, which must occur with the imperfective aspect. The imperfective suffix -lo- always appears after the number suffix, thus there is no potential for confusion of the two.
Epesipulonamumo?
Have been you been practicing (your) singing?
Epeyeputenanu.
I have not been practicing singing. (*I wanted to sing)
-lote- 'to pretend to X' Inverse: 'to act authentically in doing X'
enesakampulotema.
She pretended to write.
Le sa pelipulotemu.
I really do love you. (I am not pretending to love you)
-mmu-/-num- (PERMISSIVE2/PERM2). The form -mmu- occurs after the pronominal number suffixes; the form -num- occurs after -sum-.
-mmu-/-num- is used for the notions of allowance or hindering, without the official implication of the suffix -numu-. If it is contrasted with the suffix -numu-, -mmu-/-num- indicates an allownance or hindering without official sanction.
Layeke mena tupilotu um lumsa yinumupummusuna.
This girl allowed the foreigner to steal (lit. take/receive) the birds.
-mulu-: 'to do X in vain' (FRUSTRATIVE/FRUST)
ilo anepopumulununa.
They debased the currency in vain.
-muluka-: 'to fail to do what one has resolved to do'. It takes the perfective aspect.
lepekepisummulukanuna.
You have failed to kill us (said to the would-be assassins of the poet Kupi).
-muluyam-: 'to try'
-muluyam- takes the imperfective aspect
lekusomuluyamnuma.
We (two) are trying to sleep.
-mum-/-mnu-: 'to do X number of times'
pewaku ilosupumnutuna.
I kissed her thrice. -neme-: 'stop X-ing' (TERMINAL/TERM)
-neme- with the perfective aspect indicates 'to stop Xing'.
Umloya sili nukepu ekepu' 'neme' 'nana.
The men stopped building the tower.
-neme- with the imperfective aspect indicates 'can't stop Xing'
le kenolo elapunemetuma.
I can't stop buying books.
-ni-: 'do X together' (COOPERATIVE/COOP)
This suffix can only occur with the paucal, plural, or pantic numbers. Note that the number restriction applies to the subject of the clause; it does not vary depending on the aspect of the verb.
lelikaninuma.
We will all die together.
-nim-: 'do X well' (BENEFACTIVE/BEN) Inverse: 'do X badly'
layekeya esipunimnama.
The girl sings well.
amakimna esipunimnama.
The merchant sings badly.
-numu- 'permit/forbid' (PERMISSIVE1/PERM1)
-numu- indicates permission or lack thereof. In a transitive clause, the translation is 'someone is allowed to perform the action of the verb'. In a ditransitive clause using the Causative Construction, the translation is 'someone allows someone to perform the action of the verb.' If it is contrasted with the suffix -mmu-/-num-, -numu- indicates official permission.
le a elekopu' 'numu' 'ma
I am allowed/permitted to see it.
Le petu a elekop' 'numu' 'mu.
I forbid you from seeing it.
-so-: 'twice'
ilosupusotuna.
I kissed her twice.
-te-: 'want to X' (DESIDERATIVE/DES)
-te- always triggers the imperfective aspect. -ka- and -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
(Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'te' 'suma.
I want to send a letter.
-teka- 'should X' (+ma, +mu)
-teka- with the realis mood indicates 'should X'.
(Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'suma.
I should send a letter.
-teka- with the irrealis mood indicates 'would like to X'
-teka- triggers the subjunctive or contrafactual moods.
(Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'sume.
I would like to send a letter.
-teku-: 'to fear X happening'
-teku- takes the imperfective aspect
lomkatekanuma.
We all fear death.
-to-: negative imperative 'do not X'. (NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE/NIMV)
-to- triggers a negative aspect/polarity/tense suffix. Its aspect is always imperfective, and the verb requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives do not take pronominal prefixes and are assumed to be second person. Imperatives do require grammatical number suffixes.
Lilopusum' 'to' 'numu la!
Do not kill me!
-tum-: once
ilosuputumtuna.
I kissed her once.
-hulu-, -lu-, -ulu-: tense marker. (TENSE/TNS)
-(h)ulu- plus perfective aspect suffix -n- creates a definite past tense, while -(h)ulu- with the imperfective aspect suffix -m- creates a strong future tense (the future cannot be definite). Since the tense marker is a converbal suffix, it replaces any other converbal suffix. -ulu- is the form after the pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-, -lu- otherwise. After the causative suffix -sum- or the portative suffix -yosam-, the form is -lu-, but -hulu- is a permissible alternative.
Uku um nimupu ikimpulukina.
Uhu was a good man.
Uku Pukani um nimusopu ikimsulukina.
Uhu and Fuka were good people.
Uku Puka yikepusum(hu)lununa.
Uhu killed Fuka.
-wi-: positive imperative 'do X' (IMPERATIVE/IMV)
-wi- triggers a positive aspect/polarity/tense suffix. Its aspect is always imperfective, and the verb requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives do not take pronominal prefixes and are assumed to be 2nd person. Imperatives do require grammatical number suffixes.
Lilosum' 'wi' 'numa yaso!
Kill those two!
-wi: obligatory 'must X' (OBL)
When -wi- is suffixed to a verb root that possesses pronominal prefixes, it means 'must'.
Yaso ipekelosumwinuma.
You must kill these two.
-yam-: 'able to X' (ABILITATIVE/ABIL)
-yam- usually triggers the imperfective aspect, but the association is not as strong as it is with some of the other derivatives. -yam- triggers the Causative Construction in transitive verbs.
Leyaloya Nesa ekolo' 'yam' 'ma.
The men are able to see Nesa.
-yem-: iterative 'again' (ITERATIVE/ITER)
-yem- does not have a characteristic aspect.
Leyaloya Nesasum itulo' 'yem' 'tuna.
The men have returned from Nesa.
-yosa-: 'supposedly' (DUBITATIVE/DUB) Inverse: 'certainly'
-yosa- takes the irrealis mood suffixes.
amayamna yetelo etomloyosasune.
The merchant supposedly sold the seeds.
um lumsaloya nimuku esiloyosameku.
The foreigners certainly speak badly.
Negatives with Inverse Meanings
Suffixes with direct/inverse meanings cannot express negatives with the standard PAM (polarity/aspect/mood) suffix, the negative suffix -ku- and -(h)u- is affixed to the direct/inverse suffix directly.
amayamna yetelo etomloyosasune.
The merchant supposedly sold the seeds.
amayamna yetelo etomloyosakusune.
The merchant supposedly did not sell the seeds.
um lumsaloya nimuku esiloyosameku.
The foreigners certainly speak badly.
um lumsaloya nimuku esiloyosakumeku.
The foreigners certainly speak badly.
Directionals
General Directionals
Directionals derive from suffixes indicating direction of motion; in many cases, however, the verb root and the directional suffix combine to create a discrete verb stem. The sense of motion or stationary position is encoded by the verb root and the valency of the verb complex.
-ki-: 'in place' (DIR.STAT)
-na-: 'up' (DIR.SUPER)
-nu-: 'down' (DIR.SUB)
-su-: 'away from' (DIR.ABL)
-tu-: 'towards' (DIR.ALL)
The other suffixes are fairly self-explanatory, but -ki- probably requires some clarification. The suffix -ki- places emphasis on the stationary or heavily localized nature of the verb. This need not, however, be completely stationary. The basic directionals are egophoric, i.e., related to the position of the speaker, although in the case of transitive verbs the person upon whom the relative position is based may be conventionalized.
Examples:
eletomputuna I bought it
eletompusuna I sold it
eletompukina I kept it in stock
ikimpukima She is
ikimpunama She has grown up
sakipo ekimpunuma The lake has shrunk
lesupunama I will go up
lesupunuma I will go down
lesupusuma I will go
lesuputuma I will come
lesupukima I will wander
Specific Directional Suffixes
The specific directionals are directional converbal suffixes in Position 7 which refer to absolute rather han egophoric position, as the basic directionals do. The specific directionals, therefore, can only be literal directions. A sentence in which the specific directional suffix has usurped the place of a basic directional suffix must express the egophoric directional information using the Siye case system.
-(k)una- 'from north to the Valley' (< kemhu-na)
-kana- 'from the Valley to the north' (< kasa-na)
–(k)unu- 'from the south to the Valley' (< kasa-nu)
-kanu- 'from the Valley to the south' (< -kasa-nu)
-posum- 'from the east to the west/center' (< sakipo-sum)
-pomsu 'from the west to the east/center' (< pomi-su)
-sakinu- 'from the west to the east (via the River, or general)' (< saki-nu)
-sakina- 'from the east to the west (via the River, or general)' (<saki-na)
-lutesu- 'from the east/center to the west ( < lupate-su)
-posum- 'from the west to the east/center' (< sakipo-su).
Umloya itulosakinanam Sinaluke umhikimlosumkina.
Men came from the east and settled at Shinar.
Le Nesasu Lusilisum sususuyamke iletukesumpomsuna.
I summoned the (few) messengers to Nesa from the City.
lusilisum ya ipetupusumtuna.
You have summoned him from the city.
lusilisum ya petu ipetupusumposumna.
You have summoned him from east westward unto you from the city.
Aspect and Polarity
8 & 9. Aspect (8) & Polarity (9)
Several concepts are conflated in these suffixes. The first is aspect. Siye verbs have two aspects, perfective and imperfective. Siye aspect is totally detached from time considerations. The perfective is used if the event is viewed as complete action or state, the imperfective if it is viewed as a continuing action or state. Various converbal suffixes may control the choice of aspect or polarity or mood or any combination thereof.
Siye realis divides into two polarities: positive and negative.
-ma-: imperfective positive realis
-na-: perfective positive realis
-me-: imperfective positive subjunctive
-meku-: imperfective negative subjunctive
-ne-: perfective positive contrafactual
-neku-: perfective negative contrafactual
-mu-, -mew-: imperfective negative realis. -mew- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am.
-nu-, -new-: imperfective negative realis. -new- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am.
Relational
10. Relational
-(a)me: Relative 'who/what/which/that'
-(e)ki: Purpose, 'so that', Result, 'with the result that'
-(e)kem: Temporal, 'when'
-(e)su: Apodotic, 'then'
-(e)sum/-(e)sunam: Conditional, 'if
-(e)ya: Explanatory, 'because'
-umo: positive interrogative (dial. -(a)mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake)
-ukumo: negative interrogative (dial. -(a)mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake)
These suffixes and the coordinative suffix are clause final, rather than verb-final. A sentence with OVS word order, i.e., one in which the subject is the final word, will take these suffixes even though the nouns retains its original case ending.
Coordinative
11. Coordinative
-(h)(a)m: 'and'. The coordinative suffix is -ham after a syllable containing a nasal consonant; -am after a syllable ending in the vowels -i or -e; -m after a syllable containing ending in vowel -u. The expected form -sum 'then and' is homophonous with -sum 'if', so the Standard Siye form of 'then and' is -sunam (< -su-ni-am).
Negative
12. Negative
-ku: negative
The negative suffix -ku- originated as a general floating negative suffix, but has evolved into a method of restoring negation in converbal constructions such as -yosa-/-yosaku- and relational suffixes such as -umo/-ukumo.
Miscellaneous Information
Positions 1 and 2 often combine due to Vowel Dominance. There are two conjugations, yi-conjugation and ya-conjugation. The ya-conjugation is object-prominent. Position 3 is often suppletive depending on aspect (Position 8). Position 4 reflects the subject if the verb is imperfective, the object if the verb is perfective. It is mandatory even in the singular number. Position 5 is often derivational and triggers the Causative (Syntactical) Construction in originally transitive verbs. Position 6 is derivational; each suffix may be associated with a particularly aspect. Position 6 triggers the Causative Construction in specific cases. Position 7 is sometimes derivational, sometimes not, usually mandatory. Position 8 and 9, usually combine into one syllable. Position 10 usually indicates a subordinate clause or a matrix clause in a conditional statement. Position 11 indicates parallel clauses and may combine with Position 8/9 or Position 10. Position 12 is a mobile suffix used to disambiguate certain negative statements or strengthen an already negative statement.
Participle Structure
Siye participles are derived from Siye verbs. The verb is stripped of its pronominal prefixes and therefore the person suffix. Roots which supplete according to aspect still do so. There are in fact more suppletive roots for participles than finite verbs, since the initial stress and the lack of any pronominal prefixes preserved weak verb-initial roots. The characteristic suffix of the participle is the nominalizer. There are three nominalizing suffixes: -yam, -ki, and -kim. These create a nominal stem which govern number and case suffixes. -yam creates active, mostly animate nouns; these are usually imperfective unless the converbal suffix requires perfective aspect. -ki with a perfective aspect creates passive, mostly inanimate nouns; with the imperfective aspect it creates instrumental nouns. Again, a converbal suffix may overrule these considerations. -kim with the imperfective aspect indicates a place or time in which the characteristic action of the verb takes place; -ki with the perfective aspect indicates a place or time in which the characteristic activity took place but no longer occurs.
-ki: passive, instrumental
namtunaki- - door
itumaki- - key
-kim: locative
amakim- - market
tomnakim - the Old Market
-yam: active, ergative
amayam- - merchant
susumsuyam- - messenger, missionary
