Béu : Chapter 6 : Derivations

Welcome to béu

..... Derivation

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Derivational morphology often involves the addition of a derivational suffix or other affix. Such an affix usually applies to words of one lexical category (part of speech) and changes them into words of another such category. For example, the English derivational suffix -ly changes adjectives into adverbs (slow → slowly).

Examples of English derivational patterns and their suffixes:

adjective-to-noun: -ness (slow → slowness)
adjective-to-verb: -ize (modern → modernize)
adjective-to-adjective: -ish (red → reddish)
adjective-to-adverb: -ly (personal → personally)
noun-to-adjective: -al (recreation → recreational)
noun-to-verb: -fy (glory → glorify)
verb-to-adjective: -able (drink → drinkable)
verb-to-noun (abstract): -ance (deliver → deliverance)
verb-to-noun (agent): -er (write → writer)

Derivation can be contrasted with inflection, in that derivation produces a new word (a distinct lexeme), whereas inflection produces grammatical variants of the same word.

Generally speaking, inflection applies in more or less regular patterns to all members of a part of speech (for example, nearly every English verb adds -s for the third person singular present tense), while derivation follows less consistent patterns (for example, the nominalizing suffix -ity can be used with the adjectives modern and dense, but not with open or strong).

Derivation can also occur without any change of form, for example telephone (noun) and to telephone. This is known as zero derivation. [ All the above from "wikipedia" under "linguistic derivation" ]

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We have already seen the béu inflections ... Ch 1.5 : plurality ... Ch 2.9 : case system ... Ch 3.1.2 => 3.14 : verb paradigm.

béu also uses many derivational processes. It has a large inventory of affixes used for derivation. The diagram below shows the five main derivational processes which are absolutely fundamental to the working of the language.

Most nouns can be used as adjectives just by placing them directly after the noun they are qualifying. Like "school bus" in English. For example ...

solbes moze = a drink of water

Also there is a particle yó joining the possessed to the possessee ... however it is rarely used.

"John's house" => nambo yó jono .... but more usually nambo jono

This is zero derivation and is marked as ø in the above diagram.

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We have already remarked on the saidau => saidaus and the maŋga => maŋgas transforms [ Ch 2.1 ].

These are marked as S in the above diagram.

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The remaining two transformations shown on the diagram are for verbalization. Actually the affix -ko is added to all adjectives or nouns in order to make a verb. However in one circumstance this affix is not needed. This is for the R-form based on a multi-syllable adjective or noun. For example ...

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yubau = strong

yubako = to strengthen

pazba yubara = I am strengthening the table .... note not pazba *yubakara

pazba yubaku = strengthen the table (a command)

pazba yubakis = you should strengthen the table

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pona = hot

ponako = to heat up

ponara moze = I am heating up some water .... note not *ponakara moze

ponaku moze = heat up some water (a command)

ponakos moze = he/she should heat up some water

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bàu = man

bauko = to man (exact same meaning as in English)

baukara téu dí = I am manning this position

bauku téu dí = man this position (a command)

baukos téu dí = he/she should man this position

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gèu = green : geuko = to make green

naike = sharp : naikeko = to sharpen

keŋkia = salty : keŋkiko = to add salt ... when the adjective ends is a diphthong (and is non-monosylabic) the last vowel is dropped.

keŋkikara = "I am adding salt" .... note not *keŋkara ... this is because keŋkia is a derived word.

sài = colour : saiya = colourful : saiwa = colourless : saiko = to paint (maybe via *saiyako)

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Note ... -ko is possibly an eroded version of gàu ( "to do" or "to make" ).

Note ... There seems to be a method of deriving a two place verb from a one place verb by affixing -n. For example ... diadia = "to happen" : diadian = "to cause". While this mechanism is seen all over the language I have not mentioned it in the chart above. This is because I consider it non-productive. I count daidia and diadian both as base words. In a similar way that English speakers consider "rise" and "raise" independent words, "lie" and "lay" independent words and "sit" and "set" independent words.

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The diagram above shows second tier derivational processes. Notice that there are not many processes connecting "noun" and "verb". Also notice the plethora of processes for constructing adjectives. Normally if the suffix begins with a vowel ... then the final vowel(s) on the word are deleted. If the suffix begins with a consonant ... normally nothing is deleted. But for la and da ... preceding diphthongs are reduced.

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..... ia & ua ................. noun => adjective

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keŋko = salt : keŋkia = salty, having salt : keŋkua = lacking salt

nambo = a house : nambias = a home-owner : nambuas = a homeless person

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..... ia & ua .................. verb => adjective

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The passive participle is formed by affixing -ia to the infinitive. For example ...

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laudo = to wash/launder : laudia = washed ... [ laudias = item that has been washed. nò laudias = laundered clothes ]

kludau = to write : kludia = written ... [ kludias = the one that is written => a note ]

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The obligation participle is formed by affixing -ua to maŋga. For example ...

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Actually the form -ua by itself can be a participle when it qualifies a noun. For example ...

laudo = to wash/launder : laudua = to be washed ... [ lauduas = a soiled item of clothing : nò lauduas = a pile of clothes to be washed ]

toili kludua = the book that must be written

kluduas = that which must be written => an (school) assignment

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If the verb is a mono-syllable then the final vowels are not deleted. Instead -ia => -ya and -ua => -wa. For example ...

glù = to know : gluya = known : gluwa = to be found out : gluyas = that which is known : gluwas = that which must be found out

[ the conjunction plùa might be derived from the verb plèu "to follow" ... slightly askew derivational form ... slightly skewed derived meaning ]

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.......... The prefix ... u- ............................

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The inverse operator is the prefix u and it can be applied to adjectives, nouns and verbs ...

mutu = important : umutu = unimportant

kludanau = writer : ukludanau = a non-writer

tata = to tangle : utata = to untangle

Below is the commonest verbs that take this prefix ...

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kunja	to fold	ukunja	to unfold
laiba	to cover	ulaiba	to uncover
fuŋga	to fasten, to lock	ufuŋga	to unfasten, to unlock
benda	to assemble, to put together	ubenda	to take apart, to disassemble
pauca	to stop up, to block	upauca	to unstop
senza	to weave	uzenza	to unravel
fiŋka	to put on clothes, to dress	ufiŋka	to undress

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Note ... having the same prefix as inverse operator for nouns, verbs and adjectives can cause a bit of ambiguity. For example ...

kunja = to fold

kunjana = the folder

ukunjana .... does this mean "the unfolder" or "the one who does not fold" ? ... but we can live with a touch of ambiguity.

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I have not mentioned this prefix in any diagram.

[ taitau = many : utaitau = few / nan = for a long time : unan = not for a long time ?? }

Positive and negative connotations ...

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In the 4 (lexical category changing) derivational processes illustrated above, it can be seen that the sufffix ia seems to be associated with positivity and the sufffix ua with negativity.

Also in the 2 (lexical category unchanging) derivational processes illustrated above, it can be seen that the preffix u seems to be associated with negativity.

Perhaps also the past tense -i (positive with respect to realization) and the past tense -u (negative with respect to realization) is an extention of this pattern.

So perhaps béu speakers feel -ia has a positive connotation and -ua or u- have a negative connotation.

This pattern seems to be confined to affixes though. When it comes to lexical words this pattern is not* seen.

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* Well some common words seem to pattern the same way. For example ... bù "not", úa "to run out"/"to be used up", ìa "to complete"/"to finish".

But other words seem to pattern in the exact opposite way. For example ... kyà "don't", aiya "no", ʔaiwa "yes".

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.......... The prefix ... pau- .........................

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This usually designated something that is deemed essential to some larger object. Often something man-made.

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pauwau = a pair of spectacles

pau-clock = hand (of a clock)

pau.elza = Earpods

paudufa = a watch

pau-wheel = spoke

pau-bow = arrow

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..... bi & du ................ noun => adjective

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bi is a suffix which attached to nouns and means "attracted to".

-bis is affixed to a few nouns and a few adjectives. Its has the sense of "liking", "tending towards", "accustomed to" or "addicted to".

ái	white	aibi	faded
lozo	grey	lozobi	grizzled
pà	I	pabi	selfish
mama	mother	mambi	motherbound
nambo	house	nambi	domesticated
toili	book	toilbi	bookish
alka	alcohol	alkabis	an alcoholic
alha	flower	habis	a bee
ʔinte	ant	ʔintebis	an anteater, pangolin or aardvark

As you can see, the derived word can have some erosion.

[ This one is interesting ʔargobis = demanding (adjective) <= ʔár gò + -bis ??? ] [ And mirroring ʔargobis above we have ʔargodus = afraid of commitments (adjective) <= ʔár gò + -dus ?? ]

du is affixed to a few nouns and a few adjectives. Its has the sense of "disliking", "scared of", "avoiding" or "hating".

ʔazwo	milk	ʔazwodu	lactose intolerant
glabu	person	glabudu	timid, shy (of an animal)
moze	water	mozduʔi	rabies
peugan	society	peugandu	antisocial	peugandumai	antisocial behaviour
---	an electron	---bis	positively charged	---dus	negatively charged	---gan	charge (electrical)
kòi	sun	koidu	nocturnal

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..... le & lo ................... verb => adjective

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These are two useful affixes. They appear in certain words that are quite common.

bwí = to see

bwile = visible

bwilo = worth seeing

flò = to eat

flole = edible

flolo = delicious

solbe = to drink

solbele = drinkable

solbelo = delicious

gàu = to do, to make

gaule = do-able

gaulo = worth doing

mài = to get, to receive

maile = permissible, permitted, allowable, allowed

mailo = significant, sizeable

blèu = to hold, to be able to

bleule = possible

These two affixes are related to the two verbs klói "to like" and blèu "to hold". In earlier béu these two affixes were -klo and -ble but the initial consonants were eroded away.

There are actually two words derived from these verbs using these two affixes.

kloile = likeable, cute (usually used in connection with young kids)

bleulo = worth-holding, sexy, hot (used for nubile/attractive adults, both sexes)

I think that these two words complement each other nicely. [But if these two concepts conflate in your mind ... not so nice, you would be a pedophile :-( ]

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..... a => ai .................. noun => adjective

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aŋgwa = harmony => aŋgwai = graceful, elegant, poetic

bawa = men => bawai = male, masculine

gala = women => galai = female, feminine

wuda = wood => wudai = sturdy, durable

sopa = a corpse* => sopai = smelly

sufa = a corpse** => sufai = decomposed or morally corrupt : sufaimi = this usuall means moral corruption ... offering and excepting bribes etc.

hanya = mammal => hanyai = honest

saka = bark => sakai = rough .... soka = skin

hala = rock => halai = permanent

alha = flower => alhai = fragrant

fida= wind => fidai = temporary

fona = rain => fonai = pure

*Non-human

**Human

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sekla = the material called "glass", sekla = made of glass, seklas = a glass

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ʔà = one => ʔài = same, identical => ʔàis = the same one

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..... uʒi (ʒi) ................. verb => adjectives

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to drink	solbe	fond of drinking	solbuʒi
to play	lento	playful	lentuʒi
to rest/relax	loŋge	lazy	loŋguʒi
to lie	selne	untruthful by disposition	selnuʒi
to work	kodai	diligent	koduʒi

eskua = to be angry : eskuʒi = "bad tempered" : eskula = angry : eskuas = fit of temper, outburst

If the verb is monosyllabic or ends in n, then -ʒi is used instead of -uʒi.

swó = to fear : swoʒi = feignt-hearted, cowardly : swola = frightened : swolo = terrible

heuno = "to be sad" : heunon = "to make sad" : heunonʒi = depressing

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..... la ........................... verb => adjective

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The present participle is formed by affixing -la to the infinitive. If the final vowel verb is a diphthong it drops its last bit. For example ...

kludau = to write : kludala = "writing just now"

solbe = to drink : solbela = "drinking at this moment"

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... da .......................... verb => noun

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kludau = to write : kludada = a scriptorium

flò = to eat : floda = a restaurant

solbe = to drink : solbeda = a bar

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... mo .......................... verb => nouns

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This is actually an infix. It signifies a tool that facilitates the action. For example ...

kludau = to write : kludamo = a pen

solbe = to drink : solbemo = a straw

cwá = to cross : cwamo = a bridge

kwèu = to turn : kweumo = an axle

bái = to rise : baimo = a ladder

slòi = to flow : sloimo = drains

gàu to do : gaumo = a tool

pila = to set/place/position/to put something in its proper position and orientation : pilamo = the 17 particles that show "case"

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... do ......................... verb => noun

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This one is actually an infix. It signifies a human (usually) who habitually does the action. For example ...

kludau = to write : kludado = a clark, a scribe

kwèu = to turn : kweudo = a turner (lathe operator)

háun = to teach : haundo = a teacher

accountant < count

weaver

baker

brewer

butcher

builder

assembler ... caetwight, boatbuilder

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... pe ............................ adj => adjective

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hìa = red : hiape = reddish

jutu = big : jutupe = somewhat large

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... uma ...................... noun => noun

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The augmentative ...

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nambo = a house : nambuma = a mansion

glabu = a person : glabuma = a giant

Sometimes this affix has the form -huma. For example ...

bàu = a man : bauhuma = a male giant

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... ita ......................... noun => noun

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The diminutive ...

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nambo = a house : nambita = a cottage

glabu = a person : glabita a dwarf

Sometimes this affix has the form -ʔita. For example ...

bàu = a man : bauʔita = a male dwarf

This affix often has the connotation ... "the speaker feels affection for the noun so transformed". But note ... the opposite affix uma has no undercurrent of "revulsion"

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... ija ......................... noun => noun

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Used for the young of an animal ...

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lata = a cow : latija = a calf

fanfa = a horse : fanfija = a foal

huŋgu = a swan : huŋgija = a cygnet

Some very common animals have a form even more trunkated. For example ...

waulo = a dog : waulja = a pup

mèu = a cat : meuja = a kitten

Occasionally you come across the form -ʔija. For example ...

nuaʔija = a mouse pup

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..... More Derivations

......... moi .................. metal

metal = delmoi

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copper = ʔolimoi

bronze = pwemoi

iron/steel = gumoi

tin = fujemoi

lead = wobumoi

aluminium = yekimoi

zinc <= needle ??

gold = koimoi ... kòi = sun, day (24 hours)

silver = deumoi ... dèu = moon

......... fai ............... shopkeeper

A Seller/Shopkeeper/Merchant = kanfai

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gozəfai = a fruiterer

......... fu ..................... shop

shop/stall = kanfu

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kanfu pabla = a stall .... "stall" usually simply designated as pabla "table"

gozəfu = a fruit shop, a fruit stall

......... fau ............... tradesman

a pair of hand = dufau

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The suffix -fau indicates a person who has learnt skills through instruction and practice, practice, practice.

damaifau = metalworker

weufau = a truck driver

"deckhand" would not be translated into béu using -fau because it would be classed as casual labour and not skilled labour.

......... ba ................. language

A tongue, a language = limba

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......... gai .............. belief/theory

......... gu ................... disease

disease = ʔeugu

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......... gau ............ field of study

A field of study, a subject = megau

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peugəŋgau = the entirety of human knowledge

laigau = calculus

......... dai ............... small bird

bodai = small birds

....... di ................ small bird

bodi = a small bird

....... sai ..................... fish

a fish = fizai

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cuttlefish = byozai ..... the plural is byozai.a

....... se .................... liquid

water = moze

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almaze = apple juice

koize = orange juice

habis = bee

habize = honey ... (some erosion here)

....... si ....................... fish

fish (plural) = fiʒi

....... so .............. fruit/nuts/berry

gozo = fruit

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apple = almazo

orange = koizo < sun fruit

mango = byozo

....... pai .................... leaf

a leaf = lapai

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Apple tree leaf = almapai

Mango tree leaf = byopai

etc. etc. etc.

....... peu .................. fellow

ampeu = a comrade, a fellow, a peer, someone of the same social status as you and on friendly terms with you. Not exactly a friend but you rub along with this person for mutual advantage. Emotionally neutral ... between friend and enemy.

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polji = womb ... poljəpeu = a twin

hodo = class (in a school) ... hodəpeu = a class mate

donəpeu = a companion

yearpeu = somebody born in the same year as you

namepeu = a namesake, somebody with the same name as you

countrypeu = a compatriate

gòs = aim, objective, purpose, goal ... gospeu = a comrade, a fellow traveller

All these words are their own plural

....... po ...................... tree

trees = ʔupo

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Apple trees = amapo

Mango trees = byopo

....... tai ................ professional

a professional = notai

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(a person who's job requires book-learning) = notai

molu = medicine

moltai = a doctor

....... heu ................. station

farm = anhèu

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pyaheu = an airport

gaudoheu = factory

tunheu = a townhall .... tun = rule, power

The original meaning of anhèu is "farm" .... i.e. a sort of spread out place where many activities take place. There are store houses and/or workshops related to these different activities plus a fair amount of open space.

From this original meaning, hèu has become an affix with the meaning "station". As in police station, army base, petrol station, townhall etc. etc.

... TO THINK ABOUT

... adjectives => verbs

For example ...

geukari = I turned it green ... notice that ʃì "it" can be dropped because geuko is V2.

geukari tí = I turned myself green

tezari gèu = I became green

The difference in meaning of the above two examples, is that tezari gèu says nothing about volition (or effort) while geukari tí has connotations of both.

jwari geuko = I was made green

The above has suggests volition (and effort) but by a third party.

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READ ABOUT SWEDISH ETC ETC UNDER CAUSATIVES ...

... verbs => nouns

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Actually verbs in their infinitive form can be considered nouns also. For example ...

gàu = to do, to make ... but it can also be translated as "deed" or "action".

If an action can result in (or be strongly connected to) some physical object. In that case the name of the physical object is derived from the verb by deleting the final vowel of the infinitive and adding "u". For example ...

gàu = to make, to produce : dú = a product, an artifact

nàu = to give : nù = a gift

solbe = to drink : solbu = a drink

The -u ending always gives a countable noun ... also tangible, sort of.

To produce uncountable nouns the suffix -fan is often used. For example ...

naufan = tribute, tax

dofan = products

solbefan = drinks

yái = to have : yaifan = possessions, property

glà = to store : glafan = reserves

Note ... yó is not a noun, but a particle that indicates possession, occurs after the "possessed" and before the "possessor.

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..... The sides of an object

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sky nambon = above the house

awe (rá) nà sky nambon = the bird is above the house .... sometimes nà can be left out as well ... awe sky nambon = the bird is above the house (a phrase) the NP (the bird above the house) ....

earth nambon = under the house

face nambon = front of the house

arse nambon = behind the house

kà = side

aibaka = a triangle

ugaka = a square

idaka = a pentagon

elaka = a hexagon

ò atas nambo = he/she is above the house ... however if "house" is understood, and mention of it is dropped, we must add ka to atas ... for example ...

ò ataska = he/she is above

daunika = underneath

liʒika = on the left hand side

luguka = on the right hand side

noldo, suldo, westa, istu niaka, muaka faceside backside etc. etc.