Senjecas Inflection

Part III – INFLECTION - pűlo f - sűűa

• Senjecas is a combination of both an analytic (or isolating) language and an inflected language. Inflection is a change in the form of a word which is made to express its relation to other words. It includes the declension of nouns, adjectives, participles, and pronouns, and the conjugation of verbs. In the process of inflection, suffixes are added to a root which conveys the fundamental idea underlying the word.

List of abbreviations

• 1s/p = first person singular/plural
• 2s/p = second person singular/plural
• 3s/p = third person singular/plural
• 4 = fourth person
• A(.s/p) = accusative (singular/plural)
• G(.s/p) = genitive (singular/plural)
• N(.s/p) = nominative (singular/plural)
• V(.s/p) = vocative (singular/plural)
• ABS = absolutive (an unmarked modifying adjective)
• ADV = adverb
• AG = agent
• AP = agent (active) participle
• CAUS = causative
• ELIS = elision
• EP = epenthesis
• ELT = elative
• EQU = equative degree
• FEM = feminine
• FUT = future
• IMP = imperative
• IND = indicative
• MSC = masculine
• PP = patient (past) participle
• PRF = perfect
• PRV = privative prefix
• PST = past
• Q = interrogative particle
• QUOT = direct quotation
• REL = relativizer
• SBJ = subjunctive
• SUP = supine

3.1 Verbs – ka̋a̋tos

• 3.1.1 Verbs are words that convey an action (e.g., bring, read, walk, run, learn) or a state of being (e.g., be, exist, stand). Senjecas is primarily a language of verbs, the verb being considered the most important part of a sentence. A major portion of the Senjecan Vabulary is based on verbal roots.

• 3.1.2 The root of a verb is the verb minus the mood suffix. As this root is never found alone, in the dictionary the indicative form is used, e.g., ṁe̋na. This form is the lemma for verbs.

• 3.1.3 A finite verb is marked only for mood. The verb has four moods: the indicative (IND), the subjunctive (SBJ), the imperative (IMP), and the relative (REL). In the indicative, a statement of fact is made. In the subjunctive, a statement of unreality or uncertainty is made. In the imperative, a command is given. In the relative, a statement dependent on another is made. These moods are called finite moods. The subjunctive and the relative are also called dependent moods. To the root is added <-a> for the indicative mood, <-o> for the subjunctive mood, <-e> for the imperative mood, and <–i> for the relative mood. There is no infinitive.

• 3.1.4 Verbs are not marked for tense. A proclitic is used to indicate time when necessary. <e-> is used to indicate past time (PST). <u-> is used to indicate future time (FUT). They are joined to the verb by a hyphen (ƣeðbőto), e.g., pe̋ua, seek; e-pe̋ua, sought.

If the verb has a prefix, the proclitic is inserted between the prefix and the verb, e.g., an-e-ża̋ba, he looked up.

• 3.1.5 The verb has only one voice, the active. In the active voice, the subject is the doer or aGt of the action of the verb. A periphrastic middle voice, in which the subject acts upon himself, is formed by using the reflexive proclitic mi- (self) as the direct object of the verb. A periphrastic passive voice, in which the grammatical subject is the recipient of the action of the verb, is formed by using the verb ı̋la (become) with the patient participle. An Ausative sentence, e.g., "sheep slaughter easily," is not possible in Senjecas. It must be rendered as the periphrastic passive, "sheep are (become) slaughtered easily".

• 3.1.6 The verb has two aspects, the imperfective (IPRF) and the perfective (PRF). The imperfective aspect denotes a verb that expresses its meaNomg without regard to its beginNomg or completion. The perfective aspect denotes a completed action. The imperfective aspect is unmarked, being simply the root of the verb, plus the mood suffix. The perfective aspect is indicated by a reduplication of the initial consonant or by a lengtheNomg of the initial vowel. If the initial vowel is already long, nothing further need be done. In the case of labialized and palatalized consonants, the weak vowel is not retained in the reduplication, e.g., t̨őőra, tÿt̨őőra. The reduplicated syllable is always pronounced on the basal pitch.

• 3.1.7 The weak vowel connecting the reduplicated vowel to the verb is determined by a process known as vowel harmony. Weak i <ï> is used when the vowel of the verb is one of the front vowels: <i, e>, and <a>, e.g., ṁe̋na, ṁïṁe̋na. Weak u <ÿ> is used when the vowel of the verb is one of the back vowels: <o, õ>, and <u>, e.g., vűda, vÿvűda.

• 3.1.8 The verbal noun is known as the supine (kaaþfe̋e̋to). It is formed by adding -u to the verb root, e.g., tőla, determine; tőlu, (to) determine. It is not to be confused with the deverbative noun, e.g., determination, which is a noun of the -a class, e.g., tőlra, determination.

• 3.1.9 Senjecan verbs are divided into two classes:
  • Class I verbs are those with an initial consonant, e.g., tőla, determine.

	imperfective	perfective
indicative active	tőla	tÿtőla
subjunctive active	tőlo	tÿtőlo
relative active	tőli	tÿtőli
imperative active	tőle
indicative active participle	tőlanti	tÿtőlanti
subjunctive active participle	tőlonti	tÿtőlonti
relative active participle	tőlinti	tÿtőlinti
indicative patient participle	tőlanti	tÿtőlanti
subjunctive patient participle	tőlonti	tvtőlonti
relative patient participle	tőlinti	tÿtőlinti

• • Class II verbs are those which begin with a vowel, e.g., űða, own.

	imperfective	perfective
indicative active	űða	űűða
subjunctive active	űðo	űűðo
relative active	űði	űűði
imperative active	űðe
indicative active participle	űðanti	űűðanti
subjunctive active participle	űðonti	űűðonti
relative active participle	űðinti	űűðinti
indicative patient participle	űðaþi	űűðaþi
subjunctive patient participle	űðoþi	űűðoþi
relative patient participle	űðiþi	űűðiþi

3.2 Nouns – fe̋e̋tos

• 3.2.1 Nouns are words that designate a person, a thing, a place or an abstraction.

• 3.2.2 Nouns and adjectives have but one root, which is the word minus the declensional ending, e.g., sı̋þ-o, ladder. This root plus the Nomative singular declensional ending is the lemma for nouns.

• 3.2.3 There are two numbers, singular (s) and plural (p). The singular denotes a single item. The plural denotes more than one item.

• 3.2.4 There are four cases, nominative (N), genitive (G), accusative (A), and vocative (V).

• 3.2.5 There are six classes of nouns, one for each of the vowels.
  • 3.2.5.1 The -i class contains animate nouns that name plants, and nouns in -t̬i, which are, for the most part, vegetable in origin, e.g., a̋spi, aspen.
  • 3.2.5.2 The –e class contains animate nouns that name animals, e.g., ṡa̋se, hare.
  • 3.2.5.3 The –a class contains inanimate abstract nouns, e.g., vűga, flight.
  • 3.2.5.5 The –õ class contains animate nouns that name aberrant creatures, e.g., marǧe̋nõ, mermaid.
  • 3.2.5.4 The –o class contains inanimate concrete nouns, e.g., ta̋ino, stone.
  • 3.2.5.6 The –u class contains animate nouns that name loquent beings, e.g., a̋npu, mother-in-law.

	-i	-e	-a	-õ	-o	-u
Nominative singular	a̋spi	ca̋se	vűga	marǧe̋nõ	ta̋ino	a̋npu
Nominative plural	a̋spis	ṡa̋ses		marǧe̋nõs	ta̋inos	a̋npus
Genitive singular	aspı̋s	ṡase̋s	vuga̋s	marǧenõ̋s	tainős	anpűs
Genitive plural	aspı̋m	ṡasem		marǧenõ̋m	tainőm	anpűm
Accusative singular	a̋spim	ṡa̋sem	vűgam	marǧe̋nõm	ta̋ino	a̋npum
Accusative plural	a̋spin	ṡa̋sen		marǧe̋nõn	ta̋inon	a̋npun
Vocative singular	aspı̋	ṡase̋	vuga̋	marǧenɔ̋	tainő	anpű
Vocative plural	aspı̋s	ṡase̋s		marǧenõ̋s	tainős	anpűs

• 3.2.5.7 ma̋a̋ma, mother, and ta̋a̋ta, father, and their compounds, are declined like regular <-a> nouns.

3.3 Adjectives and determiners - feeþga̋nlosk̬e rexsa̋ṁosk̬e

• 3.3.1 There are two types of words that can be used to qualify nouns: adjectives and determiners.

• 3.3.2 Determiners single out the noun qualified, rather than describe it. Among the determiners in Senjecas are the interrogative adjectives and the cardinal numerals.

• 3.3.3 There is no definite article.

• 3.3.4 There is no indefinite article.

• 3.3.5 The place of the demonstrative adjectives is taken by the proclitics <i-> for "this", <e-> for "that", and <o-> for "yon". When used as adjectives, si means "the latter" and ni, "the former". so and no are also used as the demonstrative pronouns.

• 3.3.6 The place of the possessive adjectives is taken by the proclitics <mu-> for "my"; <tu-> for "your (singular)"; <s-> for "your (polite)"; <n-> for "his, her, its, their (3rd person); <þ-> for "his, her, its, their" (4th person), <ṁu-> for "our"; and <ȝu-> for "your (plural)": nu-ta̋a̋ta, his father; ne-va̋los, its leaves; ṁu-ṁe̋so, our house; ða̋lo tu-ṡa̋bo, your green hat; su-mı̋ı̋ðtu vı̋du fa̋rame: Is your majesty ready to leave?

• 3.3.7 The demonstrative proclitic may be emphasized by following the noun with the emphatic enclitic -ṡe: e-ta̋ino, that stone; e-ta̋ino-ṡe, that stone right there; o–se̋ro, yon table; o–se̋ro-ṡe, yon table way over there.

• 3.3.8 The interrogative adjectives are xi, which, and xőti, how-, -much, -many.

• 3.3.9 Adjectives describe a noun or pronoun. When used attributively they agree with the nouns they qualify in class only. This is called the absolutive (ABS) use of the adjective.

gőbu ṁı̋ru - the handsome man

gőbu-Ø	ṁı̋r-u
handsome-ABS	man-N.s

gőbu ṁı̋rűs o - to the handsome man

gőbu-Ø	ṁir-űs	o
handsome-ABS	man-G.s	for

When used in the predicate they agree in class, case and number, e.g.,

i-ṁı̋rus gőbus vűűa - these men are handsome

i-ṁı̋r-us	gőb-us	vűű-a
this-man-N.p	handsome-N.p	be-IND

o-ǧa̋a̋ros őőnos e̋sa - yon mountains are high-

o-ǧa̋a̋r-os	őőn-os	e̋s-a
yon-mountain-N.p	high-N.p	be-IND

• 3.3.10 Participles are verbal adjectives. There is a participle for each time, aspect and mood of the verb. v. 3.1.9.

• 3.3.11 The agent participles (AP) are formed by suffixing <-nt-> to the modal root of the verb, e.g., ṁe̋na, love, ṁe̋nanti, loving. The primary accent remains on the root vowel.

• 3.3.12 The patient participles (PP) are formed by suffixing <-þ-> to the modal root of the verb, e.g., ṁe̋na, love, ṁe̋naþi, loved. The primary accent remains on the root vowel.

• 3.3.13 A characteristic of adjectives (and adverbs) is that they can be compared.

• 3.3.14 There is only one degree of comparison, known as the elative (ELT), which is used for both the comparative and the superlative. The elative degree is formed by reduplicating the first consonant of the word. This is then linked to the word by vowel harmony.
  • 3.3.14.1 If the root vowel is a front vowel (<i>, <e>, <a>), then the linking vowel is <ï>, e.g., ze̋gi, brave; zïze̋gi, braver/bravest.
  • 3.3.14.2 If the root vowel is a back vowel (<õ>, <o>, <u>), then the linking vowel is <ÿ>, e.g., sőȝi, cold; sÿsőȝi, colder/coldest.
  • 3.3.14.3 If the word begins with a vowel (or diphthong), then the vowel (or diphthong) and first consonant are reduplicated: a̋sti, cunNomg; asa̋sti, more/most cunning; õ̋ri, severe; õrõ̋ri, more/most severe.
  • 3.3.14.4 If the root vowel is long, the vowel of the reduplicated syllable is shortened: e̋e̋di, silly; ede̋e̋di, sillier/silliest.

• 3.3.15 There are no suppletive forms as in English, e.g., good/better.

• 3.3.16 The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the genitive case followed by the postposition sóma, in comparison to. Because the genitive singular ends in –s, the –s is elided in front of the postposition.

The father is wiser than the son.

ta̋a̋ta suunű’ sóma sïsa̋a̋ṡu e̋sa:

ta̋a̋t-a	suun-ű-'	sóma	sï~sa̋a̋ṡ-u	e̋s-a
father-N.s	son-G.s-EL	than	ELT~wise-N.s	be-IND

• 3.3.17 Negative elative adjectives are formed by modifying the adjective with the adverb lísu, less. The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the genitive case followed by the postposition sóma, in comparison to.

This river is less swift than that one.

i-da̋a̋e lísu őṡe né' sóma e̋sa:

i=da̋a̋-e	lísu	őṡ-e	n-é-'	sóma	e̋s-a
this-river-N.s	less	swift-N.s	3-G.s-ELIS	than	be-IND

• 3.3.18 Adjectives form the equative degree (EQU) (as...as) by adding the suffix -sta̋li to the root of the adjective. The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the genitive case followed by the postposition sóma, in comparison to.

This butterfly is as blue as that one.

i-paape̋le móðresta̋le né' sóma e̋sa:

i=paapı̋l-e	koox-sta̋l-e	n-e-'	sóma	e̋s-a
this-butterfly-N.s	blue-EQU-N.s	3-G.s-ELIS	than	be-IND

• 3.3.19 When a noun is modified attributively by an equative adjective, a compound adjective is formed.

He is as strong as a bear.

nu verṁa̋lu vűa:

n-u	ver-ṁa̋l-u	vű-a
3-N.s	bear-strong-N.s	be-IND

3.4 Numerals – lűkos

3.4.1 The Sefdaanian numerical system uses base 10. There are individual names for the numbers 1-10 and for the numbers for one hundred up through ten trillion. A table of these may be found at 3.4.17.

3.4.2 The cardinal numerals for 100 and above are nouns of quantity. They are plural in form when used in compound numerals.

3.4.3 The numbers for the decades are formed by suffixing the adverb fóós, ten times, to the cardinal number, e.g., tı̋rfoos, 30.

3.4.4 In a similar way, the hundreds after 100 are formed by placing the required cardinal before sa̋tos, e.g., tir sa̋tos, 300.

3.4.5 In a similar way, the thousands after 1,000 are formed by placing the required cardinal number before the plural noun t̨űmos, e.g., d̬o ţűmos, 2,000.

3.4.6 This process is continued with the numeric nouns beyond 1,000, e.g., saad űl̬os, six trillion.

3.4.7 The cardinal numerals are formed by juxtaposing the numbers.

d̬ófoos d̬ő	náálfoos nűm	naal sa̋tos pénfoos bı̋n	séf t̨űmos sááð sa̋tos d̬ófoos bı̋n
22	49	458	7,628

3.4.8 A discrete number is treated as a compound noun with respect to intonation. E.g., in the number 458 given above, note that the primary accent is on the noun sa̋tos and the cardinal number bı̋n. A secondary accent is place on the adverbial numbers, e.g., náálfoos.

3.4.9 Numerals may be used attributively, e.g., mu d̬ő na̋a̋ȝen e-na̋ka, I saw two dogs. They may not be used pronominally. A sentence like "I saw two" must be phrased with a pronoun "I saw two of them", mu d̬ő non e-na̋ka. Note that "them" is in the accusative case as the direct object of the verb, literally "I saw two thems".

3.4.10 When the hundreds, and above, are used attributively the item being counted is put in the genitive case. The noun of quantity, e.g., sa̋tos, hundred, is placed in the class of the item numbered.

There are four hundred cows.

ṁake̋m na̋a̋l sa̋tes vűűla:

ṁak-e̋m	na̋a̋l	sa̋t-es	vűűl-a
cow-G.p	four	hundred-N.p	there.be-IND

But, when simple or compound numerals are added to these nouns of quantity the conjunction da joins them.

There are four hundred one cows.

ṁake̋m na̋a̋l sa̋tes da þűn vűűla:

ṁak-e̋m	na̋a̋l	sa̋t-es	da	þűn	vűűl-a
cow-G.p	four	hundred-N.p	and	one	there.be-IND

• 3.4.11 The ordinal numerals beyond "twentieth" are formed by juxtaposing the required ordinals, the smaller placed last, and the last element of the number taking the ordinal ending, e.g., d̬ofőősti, twentieth; þűnti, first; d̬ofőős þűnti, twenty-first.

• 3.4.12 The adverbial numbers expressing “how many times” are formed by adding the suffix –s to the cardinal number, e.g., d̬ő, two; d̬ós, twice. Note the accent change from primary to secondary, since the adjective has become an adverb.

• 3.4.13 Multiplicative numbers expressing “how many times as many” are formed by adding the suffix -k̬őti to the cardinal number, e.g., d̬ok̬őti, twice as many. What is being compared is in the genitive case with the postposition sóma.

He has twice as many horse as me.

nu mú' sóma d̬ok̬őte mőren űða:

n-u	m-ú'	sóma	do-k̬őte-Ø	mőr-en	űð-a
3-N.s	1s-G-EL	than	two-as.many-ABS	horse-A.p	possess-IND

• 3.4.14 Distributive numbers expressing “at a time” are formed by suffixing -úru to the required number.

The men crossed the bridge two at a time.

ṁı̋rus d̬oúru þőlom e-ta̋ra:

ṁı̋r-us	d̬o-úru	þől-om	e=ta̋r-a
man-N.p	two-at.a.time	bridge-A.s	PST=cross-IND

• 3.4.15 Distributive numbers expressing “each” are formed by adding the adjective nı̋ı̋gi, each, to the cardinal number.

We split into groups of three each.

ṁus tirnı̋ı̋go le̋żon éna e-pűla:

ṁ-us	tir-nı̋ı̋go	le̋ż-on	éna	e=pűl-a
1p-N	three-each	group-A.p	into	PST=split-IND

• 3.4.16 As with the ordinals, the compound numbers are repeated with the proper ending suffixed to the last element, e.g., d̬őfoos d̬ós, twenty-two times; tı̋rfoos tirpe̋li, thirty-three-fold; na̋a̋lfoos penk̬őti, forty-five times as many.

• 3.4.17 In the case of compound numbers expressing "at a time", only the last element of the number is repeated: pe̋nfoos númnum, fifty-nine at a time.

• 3.4.18 Table of numerals.

#	cardinal	ordinal	multiple	adverbial	collective	fraction	distributive
1	þűn	þűnti	þunpe̋li	þúns	þűnȝo	-	þún̈ı̋ı̋gi
2	d̬ő	d̬őti	d̬ope̋li	d̬ós	d̬őȝo	d̬one̋mo	d̬osnı̋ı̋gi
3	tı̋r	tı̋rti	tirpe̋li	tírs	tı̋rȝo	tirne̋mo	tirnı̋ı̋gi
4	na̋a̋l	na̋a̋lti	naalpe̋li	naáls	na̋a̋lȝo	naalne̋mo	naalnı̋ı̋gi
5	pe̋n	pe̋nti	penpe̋li	péns	pe̋nȝo	pen̈e̋mo	pen̈ı̋ı̋gi
6	sa̋a̋d	sa̋a̋ðti	saaðpe̋li	sááðs	sa̋a̋ðȝo	saaðne̋mo	saaðnı̋ı̋gi
7	se̋f	se̋fti	sefpe̋li	séfs	se̋fȝo	sefne̋mo	sefnı̋ı̋gi
8	bı̋n	bı̋nti	binpe̋li	bíns	bı̋nȝo	bin̈e̋mo	bin̈ı̋ı̋gi
9	nűm	nűmti	numpe̋li	núms	nűmȝo	numne̋mo	numnı̋ı̋gi
10	főő	főőti	foope̋li	fóós	főőȝo	foone̋mo	foonı̋ı̋gi
20	d̬őfoos	d̬ofőőti	d̬ófoope̋li	d̬ófoos	d̬ofőőȝo	d̬ófoone̋mo	d̬ófoonı̋ı̋gi
100	sa̋to	sa̋þti	sa̋þpe̋li	sáþs	sa̋þȝo	saþne̋mo	saþnı̋ı̋gi

3.5 Pronouns – ðeefe̋e̋tos

• 3.5.1 Pronouns are words that can be substituted for nouns. The following types of pronouns may be found in Senjecas: personal, intensive, reciprocal, demonstrative, interrogative, indefinite, reflexive and possessive.

• 3.5.2 The personal pronouns are mu, I; tu, you; ṁus, we; and ȝus, you. The third person pronouns are nu (medial), and þu (distal), he, she, and it; and nus and þus, they. These pronouns are put into the appropriate class and case of the noun for which they are substituting, e.g., na̋a̋ȝe, ne, [the] dog, it; ı̋ı̋ṁi, ni, [the] yew tree, it; ta̋ino, no, [the] rock, it. If a human is talking about himself, he says mu. If a merman is talking about himself, he says mõ.

	1st singular	1st plural	2nd singular	2nd plural
Nominative	mu	ṁus	tu	ȝus
Genitive	mús	ṁúm	tús	ȝúm
Accusative	mum	ṁun	tum	ȝun
Vocative	-	-	tú	ȝú

	3rd singular proximal	3rd plural proximal	3rd singular medial	3rd plural medial	4th singular distal	4th plural distal
Nominative	su	sus	nu	nus	þu	þus
Genitive	sús	súm	nús	núm	þús	þúm
Accusative	sum	sun	num	nun	þum	þun

• 3.5.3 The fourth personal pronoun is þu. It indicates a more distal referent than the third person. The distinction between third and fourth persons changes when a new third person is specified, e.g.,

The man approached the woman. He spoke to her.

ṁı̋ru ǧe̋num e-ȝőba: nu þús o e-te̋e̋a:

The woman looked up. She answered him.

ǧe̋nu an-e-ża̋ba: nu þum e-kı̋ra:

• 3.5.4 There is no implication of gender in the third person pronouns. To specify the gender, the gender-marking prefixes must be used, ur-nu, he; ii-nu, she. These are proclitics and the tone remains on the pronoun.

• 3.5.5 The third singular medial pronoun nu is used in ordinary discourse to translate he, she, or it. The third singular proximal pronoun or adjective is used only in statements of direct address to a sovereign.

Is his Majesty ready to eat?

su mı̋ı̋ðtu e̋du fa̋ru vűame:

su-Ø	mı̋ı̋ðt-u	e̋d-u	fa̋r-u	vű-a-me
3-ABS	majesty-N.s	eat-SUP	ready-N.s	there.be-IND-Q

• 3.5.6 The third proximal pronoun refers to the subject of the sentence, e.g., hűsu nu-ma̋a̋mam ṁe̋na, the boy loves his mother; mőre ne-ṡőinom e-e̋da, the horse ate its hay.

• 3.5.7 The third medial pronoun refers to a person or object other than the subject of the sentence, e.g., hűsu num ṁe̋na, the boy loves her.

• 3.5.8 The third distal pronoun (also known as the 4th or obviative pronoun) refers to a person or object even farther from the subject of the sentence.

the boy loves his mother, but not that man.

hűsu nu-ma̋a̋mam ṁe̋na. ésti o-ṁı̋rum ne:

the boy loves his mother, but not him.

hűsu nu-ma̋a̋mam ṁe̋na. ésti ur-þum ne:

• 3.5.9 The intensive pronoun is formed by suffixing -va, to the personal pronouns, e.g., mu e-a̋ta, I went; mu-va u-a̋ta, I myself will go. -va is an enclitic and the tone remains on the pronoun: ṁúm-va o, to us ourselves.

• 3.5.10 The reciprocal pronoun is formed by prefixing an-, other, to the personal pronouns which are then declined in the usual way (v. 3.5.2).

They love each other.

nus an̈un ṁe̋na:

n-us	an-n-un	e=ṁe̋n-a
3-N.p	other-3-A.p	PST=love-IND

• 3.5.11 The demonstrative pronouns are so, this, referring to what is near in place, time or thought; no, that, referring to what is more remote; and þo, that over there, referring to what is even more remote. They are declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (v. 3.5.2).

• 3.5.12 The unemphatic demonstrative, which is often used in English as the antecedent of a relative, is not expressed in Senjecas. Instead a participle is used.

I saw those who are going.

mu a-a̋tantun e-na̋ka:

m-u	a=a̋t-a-nt-un	e=na̋k-a
1-N.s	that=go-IND-AP-A.p	PST=see-IND

I saw those who had gone.

mu a-e-a̋a̋tantun e-na̋ka:

m-u	a=e=a̋~a̋t-a-nt-un	e=na̋k-a
1s-N	that=PST=PRF~go-IND-AP-A.p	PST=see-IND

• 3.5.13 The interrogative pronoun is xu. It is declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (v. 3.5.2).

Who is calling/paying a call?

xu nı̋ma:

x-u	nı̋m-a
who-N.s	pay.a.call-IND

Whom have you chosen?

tu xum őőpa:

t-u	x-um	e=ő~őp-a
2s-N	who-A.s	PST=PRF~choose-IND

• 3.5.14 There is also a dual interrogative pronoun xutéru, who/which of two. It is declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (v. 3.5.2).

• 3.5.15 The indefinite pronouns are tííðu, someone, and tííðo, something. The negative indefinite pronouns are netííðu, no one, nobody, and netííðo, nothing. It is declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (v. 3.5.2).

• 3.5.16 The reflexive pronoun is formed by prefixing the proclitic mi- to the required personal pronoun.

He wounded himself.

nu mi-num e-ṁa̋a̋a:

n-u	mi=n-um	e=ṁa̋a̋-a
3-N.s	self=3-A.s	PST=wound-IND

I gave myself a black eye.

mu mimús o kist̬a̋lom e-dőőa:

m-u	mi=m-ús	o	kis-t̬a̋l-om	e=dőő-a
1s-N	self=1s-G	to	bruise-eye-A.s	PST=give-IND

3.6 Adverbs - kaaþga̋nlos

• 3.6.1. An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, determiner, noun phrase, clause, or sentence. This function is called the adverbial function, and may be realized by single words (adverbs) or by multi-word expressions (adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses).

• 3.6.2. Certain words are, of their nature, adverbs, e.g., íðu, here. Adverbs of this type end in -u.

• 3.6.3 Any adjective may be used as an adverb. When used in this way, the enclitic -(ë)vi is added to the root of the adjective. The primary accent of the adjective is reduced to a secondary accent on the adverb.

These brave men fought.

ze̋gu i-ṁı̋rus e-ṡa̋ta:

ze̋gu-Ø	i=ṁı̋r-us	e=ṡa̋t-a
brave-ABS	this=man-N.p	PST=fight-IND

These men fought bravely.

i-ṁı̋rus zéƣvi e-ṡa̋ta:

i=ṁı̋r-us	zéƣ=vi	e=ṡa̋t-a'
this=man-N.p	brave=ADV	PST=fight-IND

• 3.6.4 Adverbial numerals are formed by suffixing –s, to the ordinal number, e.g., þűn, one; þúns, once; sa̋to, hundred; sáþs, a hundred times.

• 3.6.5 Adverbs of nominal location are formed by adding the proper suffix to the root of the noun, common or proper, e.g., nőmo, home; nómþi, at home; nómþis, from home; nómþim, (to) home.

• 3.6.6 Adverbs form their comparatives and superlatives in the same way as the adjectives (v. 3.3.14 ).

These men fought more bravely than those.

i-ṁı̋rus núm sóma zïzéƣvi e-ṡa̋ta:

i=ṁı̋r-us	n-úm	sóma	zï~zéᵹ=vi	e=ṡa̋t-a
this=man-N.p	3-G.p	than	ELT~brave=ADV	PST=fight-ADV