Khulls nouns

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Khulls nouns inflect using a fusional declension system. Though not as complicated at that of Poswa, the declensions differ more from each other because Khulls uses a "discrete" declension system instead of deriving inflections based on every phoneme in the word, as does Poswa.

Noun declension tables

Primary vowel-stem declensions

Final unstressed short vowels

Nominative (English) Accusative Locative Possessive Dative Circumstantial Essive Instrumental
òṭa table, desk oṭà oṭâ oṭas oṭal oṭan oṭī oṭō
ḳĭri happiness, victory ḳirì ḳirî ḳiris ḳiril ḳirin ḳirĕ ḳiġʷ
nìto price, penalty nitò nitô nitos nitol niton nikʷ nitū


Nouns ending with final stressed short low-tone vowels follow the same patterns as above.

Final accent, high tone

This table shows nouns that are accented on their final syllable, with a short high-tone vowel at the end of the word:

Nominative (English) Accusative Locative Possessive Dative Circumstantial Essive Instrumental
egà daytime sky egaḳà egaḳâ egaḳas egaḳal egaḳan egaḳī egaḳō
gʷì beach gʷiḳì gʷiḳî gʷiḳis gʷiḳil gʷiḳin gʷiḳĕ gʷiḳʷ
makò seal (animal) makoḳò makoḳô makoḳos makoḳol makoḳon makoḳʷ makoḳū
ʕʷè tendril ʕʷeḳà ʕʷeḳâ ʕʷeḳas ʕʷeḳal ʕʷeḳan ʕʷeḳī ʕʷeḳō

Nouns ending in follow the pattern for , because they arose from labialization of a vowel that otherwise became /o/.

A "double essive" case is sometimes seen in the declension, where the final labialized consonant loses its labialization and adds .

Many nouns that end in a final high-tone short vowel historically ended with a final -ḳ. But after the vowel /u/, this consonant became a coarticulated labiovelar stop,[1] and was later retained as /ṗ/ when the velar stop otherwise disappeared. The same is true of the non-ejective version of this sound. Thus, words ending in -p or -ṗ decline following the patterns of the standalone word below, which means "teacher":

Nominative (English) Accusative Locative Possessive Dative Circumstantial Essive Instrumental
p teacher p pṡ pḷ pṅ

Nouns with word-final falling tone, long vowels

Nominative (English) Accusative Locative Possessive Dative Circumstantial Essive Instrumental
school pâs pâl pân
bottle bes bel ben
kʷō bed kʷaʕʷù kʷaʕʷû kʷaʕʷus kʷaʕʷul kʷaʕʷun kʷaʕʷ kʷaʕʷū

Secondary vowel-stem declensions

Nominative (English) Accusative Locative Possessive Dative Circumstantial Essive Instrumental
xʷèye curved claw
kʷăkʷ stone tablet
empĕ sword empyì empyî empyis empyil empyin empĕ empyŭ
ḳē wheel ḳê ḳê ḳês ḳêl ḳên ḳê ḳêʕʷ
milk


NOTE, possibly eliminate the first two rows of the secondaries, since final -e and final -u can only come from stressed positions even if in a compound where they are unstressed, except for when the /e/ follows /u/, in which case it comes from /u/ or /a/.

Tertiary vowel-stem declensions

Nominative (English) Accusative Locative Possessive Dative Circumstantial Essive Instrumental
atá spirit atakà atakâ atakas atakal atakan atakī[2] atakō
šonorí depravity, perversion šonorikà šonorikâ šonorikas šonorikal šonorikan šonorikī[2] šonorikō
flower petal lokà lokâ lokas lokal lokan lokī[2] lokō
diaper lekà lekâ lekas lekal lekan lekī [2] lekō
Nominative (English) Accusative Locative Possessive Dative Circumstantial Essive Instrumental
amâ whip amâ amâ amâs amâl amân amê amô
gʷî spy, thief gʷî gʷî gʷîs gʷîl gʷîn gʷê gʷŭ
swamp dôs dôl dôn daʕʷ
hʷê military road hʷê hʷê hʷês hʷêl hʷên hʷê[3] hʷê
ḳʷû urine ḳʷuʕʷù ḳʷuʕʷû ḳʷuʕʷus ḳʷuʕʷul ḳʷuʕʷun ḳʷuʕʷ ḳʷuʕʷū


Final -ú might not exist because of retention of the final /kp/ cluster as /p/ rather than deletion.

Primary consonant-stem declensions

Nominative (English) Accusative Locative Possessive Dative Circumstantial Essive Instrumental
gis fruit tree gixì gixî gixis gixil gixin gixĕ gixʷ
maŋan prey maŋaŋà maŋaŋâ maŋaŋas maŋaŋal maŋaŋan maŋaŋī maŋaŋō

Notes

  1. as in Vietnamese
  2. 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 if analogy takes over, perhaps assisted by sḳī > kī
  3. hʷ + ya + ʕī