Pabappa nouns
Pabappa has nouns.
Number
Pabappa does not have a grammatical category for number in the sense that plural nouns take plural adjectives and plural verbs or anything of the sort. Most nouns are lexically unmarked for number, meaning that possimi can mean "flag" or "flags" equally often and both uses are correct. A few nouns can only refer to a singular, mostly words for body parts and familial relations. Many of the body part words have suppletive dual and/or plural forms.
The vast majority of nouns, however, are unmarked for number, and take the suffix -pum to specifically indicate a plural. -Pum is not normally used when a number modifier such as pibi "four" is specified; if it were, it would indicate four "pluralities", not four individuals. This suffix is cognate to the Poswa -bum suffix and itself becomes -bum after a noun ending in a vowel. The Poswa -by suffix no longer exists in Pabappa, and even those words in which it had become fossilized as -p now generally behave as singulars and take the additional suffix -pum to form the plural.
-pum
The plural suffix -pum changes form according to the preceding phoneme.
Vowels
The suffix always becomes -bum after a word ending in a vowel:
- pompada : pompadabum
- thorn : thorns
- ubi : ubibum
- trail : trails
- lopo : lopobum
- mess : messes
- pibiasu : pibiasubum
- bridge : bridges
Native Pabappa words do not end in -e, but they still obey the change:
- bunde : bundebum
- anthem : anthems
Rotating consonants
After a word ending in -p, the -p- of -pum merges with the preceding one and thus the suffix appears as if it were -um:
- blibip : blibipum
- egg : eggs
After a word ending in -s, the suffix becomes -sum:
- pododos : pododossum
- rich person : rich people
Vowel-chaining consonants
The consonants b n t occur in final position only when a previously existing final vowel -e has dropped out. When suffixes, including the plural suffix -pum, are added to these words, the -e- reappears, and because the new stem thus ends in a vowel, the -pum becomes -bum.
After a word ending in -b, the suffix restores the lost -e- and thus appears to become -ebum:
- pumpib : pumpibebum
- owl : owls
After a word ending in -n, the suffix restores the lost -e- and thus appears to become -ebum:
- blopon : bloponebum
- iris : irises
After a word ending in -t, the suffix restores the lost -e- and thus appears to become -ebum. Additionally, the preceding -t- is voiced to -d-:
- pubat : pubadebum
- leaf : leaves
Regular consonants
After a word ending in -m, the suffix remains -pum:
- pumpum : pumpumpum
- capital : capitals
After a word ending in -l, the suffix remains -pum:
- luppul : luppulpum
- fabric, fabrics
After a word ending in -r, the suffix remains -pum:
- wapar : waparpum
- hoof : hooves
Numerals
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cardinal | numpa | pupi | mani | pibi | pabi | nampul | nabi | pini | tassi | papi |
Ordinal | numpam | nibam | manim | pibam | pabom | nampom | nabam | pinim | tapum | papam |
Fractional | nubi | nibor | manir | pibor | pabir | nampur | nabor | pinir | tapu | papor |
Body parts
Some words for body parts in Pabappa have suppletive dual or plural forms. Most of these are words for pairs. For example, pep means one hand. Pobop, the dual form, indicates both of one person's hands; and the plural form peple indicates any number of hands greater than one, including two, regardless of whom they belong to. Thus two people shaking hands are touching their peple, but one person pulling on a tow chain with both of his hands is straining his pobop.
Other body parts are seen as plural by default, and need a suffix to indicate the singular. For example, wopsisi means "teeth", but to say "tooth" one adds the singulative suffix -pa to form wopsisiba. The change of /p/ > /b/ is due to a very common sound rule.
The suppletive duals and plurals are mostly derived from words that are cognate to the singular forms, and were once regular, but diverged over several thousand years into forms that share little in common but the initial consonant. But some forms, especially duals for body parts that occur in pairs, are from entirely different roots.
Table of suppletive and irregular body part plurals
English | Singular | Dual | Plural |
---|---|---|---|
hand | pep | pobop | peple |
thumb | lapep | lapop | lapi |
nipple | minep | mum | mub |
buttock | pulep | pupop | pulpum |
wing | ponep | pompop | pububum |
The dual number is often used in situations where English would expect the singular. All of the duals that do not end in -op are descended from words which acquired a specifically dual meaning over time but previously were either plurals or were indifferent to number.
Unlike most situations where pluralizing an already semantically plural word by adding -pum is considered bad grammar, in the words for body parts, it can be done to show emphasis.
Noun cases
Pabappa's noun cases are similar to those of Poswa, but the patterns are much simpler. The traditional case order in Pabappa (and Poswa) is Nominative, Accusative, Locative, Possessive, Essive, Instrumental.
Nominative
The nominative case is the bare form of the noun, with no suffixes.
Accusative
The accusative is marked with the suffix -p. It is used for the direct objects of transitive verbs.
- Pom timadupup pumapi.
- I kicked the ball.
When an object is placed before the subject, there is usually a pause in speech:
- Timadupup, pom pumapi.
- The ball, I kicked (it).
Locative
The locative is marked with the suffix -m. It is used to indicate that something is inside or on top of something.
- Ibil pomom[1] blapsablambi pisi.
- The fish inside me was tasty.
The locative case can also be used with a sort of inverse locative meaning.
- Pepi₁ ampim₂ pisa.₃
- My hand₁ is₃ in a coin.₂
The above is the literal meaning, but the sentence would be interpreted by Pabaps as
- My hand has a coin in it.
This inverse locative is a specific use of a broader meaning of being affected by something. For example, one can say:
- Wumpim₁ wibiapam₂ pisi.₃
- The field₁ was₃ snowed on.₂
Possessive
The possessive case generally shows ownership, but in some constructions can be used with a broader meaning typical of languages with genitive cases.
- Labloi pippinopos pisa.
- The bed belongs to a student.
Essive
The essive case is used primarily to indicate that something is made from something else.
- Pom pambobosop publipil tipelapi.[2]
- I picked up a bar of soap.
Instrumental
The instrumental case has a variety of meanings, but the primary meaning is that something or someone is making use of something else.
Declensions
-a
Most nouns ending in -a belong to this declension. It is one of the simplest declensions. Below is the declension of pompada "thorn":
Case | Free | Possessed(1p) | Attached |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | pompada | pompadi | |
Accusative | pompadap | pompadip | |
Locative | pompadam | pompadim | |
Possessive | pompadas | pompadis | |
Essive | pompadel | pompadil | |
Instrumental | pompador | pompadir |
-i
Most nouns ending in -i belong to this declension. It is one of the simplest declensions. Below is the declension of petiti "rose":
Case | Free | Possessed(3p) | Attached |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | petiti | ||
Accusative | petitip | ||
Locative | petitim | ||
Possessive | petitis | ||
Essive | petitil | ||
Instrumental | petitir |
-o
Most nouns ending in -o belong to this declension. It is a split-vowel declension. Below is the declension of poblo "sand":
Case | Free | Possessed(3p) | Attached |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | poblo | pobli | |
Accusative | poblop | poblip | |
Locative | poblom | poblim | |
Possessive | poblos | poblis | |
Essive | poblil | poblil | |
Instrumental | poblir | poblir |
-u
Most nouns ending in -u belong to this declension. It is one of the simplest declensions. Below is the declension of wupsu "winner's stand, rostrum":
Case | Free | Possessed(3p) | Attached |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | wupsu | wupsi | |
Accusative | wupsup | wupsip | |
Locative | wupsum | wupsim | |
Possessive | wupsus | wupsis | |
Essive | wupsul | wupsil | |
Instrumental | wupsur | wupsir |
-p
Most nouns ending in -p belong to this declension. It is one of the simplest declensions. Below is the declension of palpap "deciduous tree":
Case | Free | Possessed(3p) | Attached |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | palpap | palpabi | |
Accusative | palpapap | palpabip | |
Locative | palpapam | palpabim | |
Possessive | palpapas | palpabis | |
Essive | palpapel | palpabil | |
Instrumental | palpapor | palpabir |
Thus one can say
- Potari₁ pibim₂ tatupsaba₃ palpapap₄ pumpurblupi₅ blapam₆.
- My boyfriend₁ climbed₃ up₂ the tree₄ outside₆ my window₅.
Note that in this sentence, the word order is SVO, rather than the more common SOV, because the focus of the predicate is on the boyfriend's climbing the tree rather than the fact that it was a tree he climbed.
-m
Most nouns ending in -m belong to this declension. Below is the declension of narpellum "ice cream":
Case | Free | Possessed | Attached |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | narpellum | narpellumi | |
Accusative | narpellumup | narpellumip | |
Locative | narpellumum | narpellumim | |
Possessive | narpellumus | narpellumis | |
Essive | narpellumul | narpellumil | |
Instrumental | narpellumur | narpellumir |
Thus one can say
- Pom₁ narpellumibap₂ pasapsumul₃ pobumpi₄, pannasumir₅.
- I₁ ate₄ my strawberry₃ ice cream₂, with my spoon₅.
-s
Many nouns ending in -s are recent loanwords from Poswa. Exceptions are generally one-syllable words and comnpounds whose final element is monosyllabic, or words that previously ended in -se and lost the -e without further losing the -s. Below is the declension of tepumas "wasp, hornet":
Case | Free | Possessed(3p) | Attached |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | tepumas | tepumasi | |
Accusative | tepumasap | tepumasip | |
Locative | tepumasam | tepumasim | |
Possessive | tepumasas | tepumasis | |
Essive | tepumasel | tepumasil | |
Instrumental | tepumasor | tepumasir |
Thus one can say
- Pom₁ tepumasas₂ popusip₃ pepapasi₄ papapomir₅.
- I₁ slapped₄ the hornets'₂ nest₃ with the palm of my hand₅.
-l
The -l declension is more complicated than most in Pabappa. Below is the declension of piripel "middle, center":
Case | Free | Possessed(3p) | Attached |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | piripel | piripi | |
Accusative | piripip | piripip | |
Locative | piripim | piripim | |
Possessive | piripis | piripis | |
Essive | piripil | piripil | |
Instrumental | piripir | piripir |
-r
The -r declension is more complicated than most in Pabappa. Below is the declension of tompomor "mattress":
Case | Free | Possessed(3p) | Attached |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | tompomor | tompomi | |
Accusative | tompomup | tompomip | |
Locative | tompomum | tompomim | |
Possessive | tompomus | tompomis | |
Essive | tompomul | tompomil | |
Instrumental | tompomur | tompomir |
Thus, all words ending in -or behave as if they ended in -u.
Possessives
Pabappa adds a suffix -i to denote possession of nouns. Additionally, almost all nouns ending in the voiceless stops -p -t will change those stops to voiced ones. Note that some words do not change at all:
- pimblom "wand" : pimblomi "(his) wand"
- pobap "candy" : pobabi "(his) candy"
- panna "spoon" : panni "(his) spoon"
But
- pampi "soap" : pampi "(his) soap"
- pambi "bottle" : pambi "(his) bottle"
Note that since Pabappa does not have person markers integrated with the possession marks, this is merely a base form, and further disambiguation is necessary. The third person was used above for consistency. The person markers -ba and -di are used for first and second person respectively:
- Pobabiba papessam pisa.
- My candy is in the bowl.
- Pobabidi wopsisibap pudampa.
- Your candy hurts my teeth.
Third person takes no marker at all, which means that for nouns whose stem ends in -i, there is no difference between the bare form and the third person possessed form. For the most part, this is not a problem, as there is little semantic difference between an English sentence such as The boy grabbed his soap and The boy grabbed the soap, but when necessary, additional words can be added to clarify the difference.
This pattern is much simpler than the pattern found in Pabappa's close relative Poswa, even though the affixes are derived from the same original morpheme. For example, the word for wand in Poswa is pimblom, just as it is in Pabappa, but the word for "his wand" is pimblia. The parent form from which Pabappa pimblomi and Poswa pimblia diverged is pimilygwa baba.
Irregular nouns
Pabappa has a small number of irregular nouns, mostly derived from recently lost final sounds in the nominative which are still represented in the other cases. However, most such words have been regularized over time. There were three sound shifts that deleted word-final phonemes: first, word final -y was deleted (this phoneme is no longer present in Pabappa in any position). Much later, final -s was deleted in most words, but survived in monosyllabic words and some others that were analogized based on the monosyllables. Lastly, final -e was deleted in most words, but changed to -i in others. This final shift created a new category of words ending in final -s.
Pronouns and head markers
The first person singular pronoun, pom, is derived from a word meaning "on me, inside me" rather than just "me". The locative of the first person singular pronoun is thus doubly marked. The second person singular pronoun, mas, is derived from the genitive, thus meaning "your, yours" and its genitive is thus doubly marked.
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For the transitives, the agent is on the leftmost column and the patient is on the topmost row. Thus one can say:
- Pompo₁ sipompi₂ blubur.₃
- I for us₁ bought₂ milk.₃ ("I bought us milk.")
Where pompo means "I ... us".
Metonymy
Pabappa uses metaphors such as metonymy in much the way English does, without the need for additional markers. For example, a military leader can say to another
- Poma pontaba.
- I'm invading you.
And not launch a military campaign inside the other man. This applies even to statements such as
- Mumbai pop numpuba!
- The drain is bleeding me!
Where the implication is that some person or other animate force is draining a metaphorical blood from the speaker, just as it would be in English or any other language.
Loanwords and foreign terminology
Pabappa has many loanwords from Poswa but prefers not to take loanwords from any other languages. Because the Pabaps have many Poswobs living in their territories, objects and ideas previously unfamiliar to both the Pabaps and the Poswobs are often introduced to both peoples at about the same time, and the Pabaps generally let the Poswobs create the new word for it. Pabappa's smaller phonology adapts well to Poswa's by simply merging various sounds together.
Loanword charts
A sample of words borrowed from Poswa into Pabappa is below:
Modern words
New words are taken in directly, with the Poswa sounds being mapped directly to Pabappa ones:
English | Poswa | Pabappa |
---|---|---|
Older words
Some older words were taken into Pabappa before sound changes which made them look less similar:
English | Poswa | Pabappa |
---|---|---|
mirror | sobbvampys | sobbampis |
type of mushroom; elastic, springy | biželli | bidelli |
tissue of the body | vupaefa | pupaipa |
treasury, bank | pumpella | pumpella |
Verbs
See Pabappa verbs.