User:Bukkia/sandboxIII

Consonants

This is the consonant system in the IPA consonant table:

	Bilabial	Labio- dental	Dental	Alveolar	Post- alveolar	Palatal	Velar
Plosive	p b		t d				k ɡ
Nasal	m	[ɱ] 1	n				[ŋ] 2
Vibrant			r
Fricative		f v		s z	ʃ ʒ		x
Affricate				ʦ	ʧ ʤ
Approximant						j	w
Lateral approximant			l

• 1: Allophone of [m] before labiodental consonants
• 2: Allophone of [n] before velar consonant

Palatalization

Some consonants come in pair with a palatalized counterpart:

Non-palatalized consonant	Palatalized counterpart
k	č
g	dž
s	š
z	ž
t	č
d	dž

This phenomenon, called palatalization, is very common, usually (but not always) when one of these consonants comes in contact with the semivowel [j]. It's very important, because it occurs many times in noun declension.

Vowels

	Front	Near-front	Central	Near-back	Back
Close	i(:) ɨ(:) u(:) e(:) o(:) a(:)
Close-mid
Mid
Open-mid
Open

Nouns

Singular
Case	Consonant	Vowel
Nominative	-	-
Genitive	-u	-w
Dative	-a	-ja
Accusative	-o	-wo
Instrumental	-en	-jen
Locative	-ot	-jot
Adlative	-ás	-jás
Delative	-ád	-jád

Plural
Case	Consonant	Vowel
Nominative	-y	-j
Genitive	-yw	-ju
Dative	-ya	-jay
Accusative	-yo	-joy
Instrumental	-yen	-jeyn
Locative	-yt	-jyt
Adlative	-ýs	-jýs
Delative	-ýd	-jýd

The dual number indicates a pair of things. It has a lesser number of endings, only four, with consonant and vowel counteparts.

Dual
Case	Consonant	Vowel
Nominative Accusative	-et	-t
Genitive Dative Adlative	-etu	-ču
Instrumental Delative	-etyn	-čyn
Locative	-ec	-ciw

Examples:

stuv = village, town
Case	Singular	Plural	Dual
Nominative	stuv	stuvy	stuvet
Genitive	stuvu	stuvyw	stuvetu
Dative	stuva	stuvya	stuvetu
Accusative	stuvo	stuvyo	stuvet
Instrumental	stuven	stuvyen	stuvetyn
Locative	stuvot	stuvyt	stuvec
Adlative	stuvás	stuvýs	stuvetu
Delative	stuvád	stuvýd	stuvetyn

mila = woman
Case	Singular	Plural	Dual
Nominative	mila	milaj	milat
Genitive	milaw	milaju	milaču
Dative	milaja	milajay	milaču
Accusative	milawo	milajoy	milat
Instrumental	milajen	milajeyn	milačyn
Locative	milajot	milajyt	milaciw
Adlative	milajás	milajýs	milaču
Delative	milajád	milajýd	milačyn

Some nouns, even if they end with a consonant, follow the vowel declension pattern. In this case their last consonant undergoes palatalization, except for the nominative and genitive in the singular, and for all cases in dual. If there is a long vowel, when palatalization occurs, the vowel gets short.

krís = king
Case	Singular	Plural	Dual
Nominative	krís	krišy	kríset
Genitive	krísu	krišu	krísetu
Dative	kriša	krišay	krísetu
Accusative	kríswo	krišoy	kríset
Instrumental	krišen	krišeyn	krísetyn
Locative	krišot	krišyt	krísec
Adlative	krišás	krišýs	krísetu
Delative	krišád	krišýd	krísetyn

If a noun already ends with -u, the genitive ending in the singular melds with this vowel and becomes -ú.

• mázu (house) ‣ mázú

Article

There is only the form for the definite article (the): ó. It has to be declined according to its noun.

ó = the
Case	Singular	Plural	Dual
Nominative	ó	ony	ont
Genitive	onu	onju	onču
Dative	ona	onja	onču
Accusative	ono	onjo	ont
Instrumental	onen	onjen	ontyn
Locative	onot	onyt	onec
Adlative	onás	onýs	onču
Delative	onád	onýd	ontyn

Adjectives

The adjectives must agree with their nouns in number and case, but only in attributive position. In prepositive position adjectives are not declined:

• Attributive position: nom.: dén mila (a good woman), gen.: dénu milaw (of a good woman)
• Prepositive position: ó mila dén ér (the woman is good), ony milaj dén eruk (the women are good)

Declension

The adjectival declension follows the nominal declension's pattern, with the distinction between consonant and vowel endings. Adjectives always come before their nouns, except for participles, that can occur after.

If the adjective comes before a nouns which is definited, it melds with the article, and it uses the definite adjectival declension.

• Dén mila: a good woman
• Dénon mila: the good woman
• Dényenon milajeyn: with the good women

Here there are samples from two adjectives:

dén = good
Case	Singular	Plural	Dual
Nominative	dénon	dényjon	déneton
Genitive	dénun	dénywon	dénetun
Dative	dénan	dényajon	dénetun
Accusative	dénon	dényojon	déneton
Instrumental	dénenon	dényenon	dénetynon
Locative	dénoton	dényton	dénecon
Adlative	dénáson	dénýson	dénetun
Delative	dénádon	dénýdon	dénetynon

pana = high
Case	Singular	Plural	Dual
Nominative	panan	panajon	panaton
Genitive	panawon	panajun	panačun
Dative	panajan	panajayn	panačun
Accusative	panawon	panajoyn	panaton
Instrumental	panajenon	panajeynon	panačynon
Locative	panajoton	panajyton	panaciwon
Adlative	panajáson	panajýson	panačun
Delative	panajádon	panajýdon	panačynon

Comparison

There are two degrees of comparison: the comparative form and the superlative form:

They are formed by adding prefixes to the normal form of the adjective:

• Comparative: add pu- (mantaining the -): dén ‣ pu-dén
• Superlative: add saj- (mantaining the -): dén ‣ saj-dén

The second term of the comparison for comparative form is introduced by ča:

• lak mila pu-lán ča šik ér: this woman is more beautiful than that one

Verbs

Verbs have a rich system of conjugation. There are one infinitival form, 3 participles, 4 moods and at least 5 tenses in the indicative mood. Verbs do conjugate according to the person, with different endings for each person, in singular, plural and dual. Each form has a passive counterpart, because there is a separated passive conjugation.

Verbs are divided in two conjugation patterns, depending on their infinitival endings:

• 1st conjugation = -uč
• 2nd conjugation = -or

By dropping these endings we'll get the verbal root, basis of verbal conjugation.

Infinitive

This is the infinitival form, that you'll find in dictionaries.

We'll use two sample verbs, to show the conjugation:

to Love	to Eat
Keluč	Setor

Participles

Verbs have three participles: present participle, past participle, and future participle, which doesn't exist in English, but express the same meaning of the other two participles but in the future.

Present	Past	Future
kelav	okelav	tekelav
setav	osetav	tesetav

The past participle has an active meaning; osetav doesn't mean that has been eaten, but which has eaten.