'ižiitsigh

'ižiitsigh is created by tvk. It grammaticalizes many constructions, using affixes where English and many other languages would require additional words or phrases. It is agglutinating with some inflecting characteristics. It is designed to be expressive and "attractively ugly" (muxši).

Phonology

Phoneme Inventory

Vowels are /a E i u U/, represented by <a e i u eu> Consonants: The basic stops are unvoiced /t c ?/ and voiced /b d J\/. These are represented by <t k ' b d g>. There are many fricatives: /s z s_j z_j S Z C j\/ <s z š ž sj zj x gh>. Note that the <j> grapheme doesn't mark palatalization, but a different point of articulation. This is because historically <š> and <ž> were /s`/ and /z`/, and <sj> and <zj> were palatalized alveolar fricatives. The affricates are /dZ/ and /tS/, represented by <dj and tj>. These are descended from palatalized stops and are considered monophonemic, although there are many other possible affricates that are considered consonant clusters. There is also a palatalized stop /k_j/ <kj>. There are two flaps /4 4_j/ <r ř> and two laterals, /l K/ <l lh>. The cluster /tK/ is considered one phoneme and written <tlh>. The nasals are /n m J/ <n m n>. The latter can only occur before another palatal consonant. There is one approximant, /h/ <h>.

Allophony

Word-finally, /4/ and /4_j/ are respectively [r\] and [z`].

In clusters, /C/ becomes [j\] before a voiced consonant, and /l/ becomes [K] after an unvoiced consonant. /n/ becomes [m] or [J] after a labial or palatal consonant, respectively.

A very short glottal pause may be inserted between other clustered consonants with different voicing.

Phonotactics

Syllable structure is CV(V)(C). Clusters cannot occur word-finally, and the set of consonants that can occur word-finally is limited to the following:

<t b d k g tj dj x gh z ž zj š sj r ř n m l lh tlh '>

Consonants that can be the first element of a cluster are: <t d b g k x>. Consonants that can be the second element of a cluster are <l n r ř s š sj z ž zj>.

There is one allowable diphthong, /aU/, written <au>. There are also long forms of each vowel, written by doubling the vowel (except in the case of <eu>, the long form of which is written <euu>.

Lexicon

The vocabulary is a priori. There are two open classes, nouns (‌'idi'itjun) and verbs (‌'ixa'autjim). All other morphemes fall into the class of ‌'izje'ekrel or affixes. The category for all morphemes, including root words, is ižiitsigh.

Nouns fall into one of 8 classes. The first two, called ‌'iřuušidjim and ‌'ibuubedjim correspond to masculine and feminine. Nouns are assigned to the classes according to form, function, or association. All noun roots end in a consonant.

Derivational Morphology

Nominal

The suffix -djim makes an intransitive stative verb into a noun. Y = X-djim means Y is characterized by being or doing X.

Verbal

The prefix ‌'eu- makes a noun root into an intransitive stative verb. 'eu-X means "X exists" or "there is X". Verbs of this type are (redundantly) inflected to agree with the class of the root noun. This prefix is fully productive to the point that it might be considered syntactical; it can even be applied to plural nouns or nouns derived from verbs.

Syntax and Grammar

Nominal Morphology

Gender

Nouns usually take a vowel suffix to indicate their gender. The suffixes are as follows:

• Class 1: -a
• Class 2: -i
• Class 3: -i
• Class 4: -u
• Class 5: -e
• Class 6: -a
• Class 7: -e
• Class 8: -e

The gender suffix changes under certain conditions. If the noun is within a relative clause or is an argument of a gerund, the suffix is applied after case marking, not before. In addition, any gender suffix can be replaced by the pejorative ending -eu or the diminutive ending -ii.

Pluralization

Nouns have two plural forms, partitive and non-partitive. In the partitive form, the individuals are emphasized; in the non-partitive form, the group is emphasized. This is analogous to the distinction between "persons" and "people" in English; "persons" is the partitive form. Both plurals are formed by prefixing ‌'i to the stem and doubling the first vowel of the stem. However, in the partitive form, a glottal stop is inserted between the double vowels. The partitive plural of nouns whose first root vowel is eu is irregular: the vowel becomes e'eu rather than eu'eu. For example, the partitive plural of řeu'ad "forked tree branch" is ‌'iře'eu'ad.

‌'Iri'ixlu'e sjautžinab zjatlhabiitjatlh. "The people threw the javelin." (i.e. they each threw it in turn, individually.)

‌'Iriixlu'a sjautžinab zjatlhabiigzjatlh. "The people threw the javelin." (i.e. they all picked it up together and threw it.)

Despite these forms, the concept of pluralization in 'ižiitsigh varies somewhat from that of English. There are no agreement markers for plural forms, and the non-partitive form is quite similar in use to the phrase "a group of [plural noun]" in English. It could be argued that the plural forms are actually derivational. This is supported by the fact that some nouns actually change gender class when they are pluralized, as rixlu "person" does above. In the singular and partitive plural, it is in Class 5, which it shares with rugs and trees; in the non-partitive plural, it is a Class 6 noun, in the same category as words, water, and lizards.

Case

'ižiitsigh is an ergative language; the agent of an intransitive verb and the patient of a transitive verb take the same case. However, nouns in the subject role of many transitive verbs take a third "passive" case. In addition, there are oblique (indirect object or recipient) and instrumental cases. For nouns that are arguments of a verb phrase at the head of a sentence, the case inflections are as follows:

• absolutive -0
• ergative -b
• passive -x
• oblique -lh
• instrumental -k

Use of the Passive Case

The passive case is used for nouns representing things that are an active force in creating the action described by the verb, but do not act under their own volition. For example, in the sentence ‌'ire'ezjedjax 'euzjeutraza'atlh "Arrows have hit him", ‌'ire'ezedj "arrows" is in the passive case. The passive is also used with intransitives, as in tegšerex 'ezjegheuzi'utj "The rug slipped".

Nouns Modifying Nouns

Whereas English and most other languages have just a few ways of expressing the possessive or genitive, 'ižiitsigh has many noun cases for such ideas that express the precise relationship between the things involved.

• zjumige Biteuras "Peter's picture" (he owns it)
• zjumige Biteuran "Peter's picture" (he drew it)
• zjumige Biteuradj "Peter's picture" (the picture is of Peter)
• zjumige Biteunar "Peter's picture" (he has it, but doesn't own it)
• meuřauši Biteurau "Peter's mother" (he calls her "mother")
• meuřauši Biteuzir "Peter's mother" (she gave birth to him)
• tegnige Biteurasj "Peter's arm" (the arm is part of him)
• tegnige Biteuzanir "Peter's arm" (a metaphorical reference to something that serves Peter as though it were his arm, but is not an arm or part of him)

Verbal Morphology

Verbs in 'ižiitsigh cover approximately the same semantic space as verbs and adjectives in English. Verb roots take many affixes to inflect for tense, aspect, mood, evidentiality, gender of agent and patient, and the speaker's attitude toward the action under discussion.

Tense, Mood, and Aspect

The tense/aspect system works somewhat differently from that in English. The two tenses, narrative and present, indicate a "reference point". Aspects such as perfect/imperfect, inchoative, cessative, etc. delineate the time at which the action occurs in more detail. The present perfect has a wider use than in English, covering most uses of the preterit (except when the action in question is incomplete). The narrative tense puts the reference point in the past, enabling one to say things like "he had not yet gone" or "he was going to go".

Inflecting for Tense, Mood, and Aspect

Without further ado, here are the affixes for all the tenses and aspects in 'ižiitsigh. Tense suffixes are applied immediately after the stem; aspect affixes are prefixed to the stem.

• Present Indicative -z-
• Narrative Indicative -b-
• Present Subjunctive -zj-
• Narrative Subjunctive -g-
• Imperative -m

The aspectual system is more complicated, because aspects can be combined. (SV) below indicates reduplication of the first vowel of the verb stem.

Perfect Aspect

• Simple Perfect: (SV)-
• Perfect Inchoative ha- "started"
• Perfect Cessative keu- "stopped"
• Perfect Desiderative 'ah(SV)- "wanted to"
• Perfect Inchoative Inchoative 'iga- "was about to"
• Perfect Inchoative Cessative nau- "was about to stop"
• Perfect Inchoative Desiderative gh(SV)- "began to want"
• Perfect Cessative Cessative tji- "finished"
• Perfect Cessative Desiderative ši- "stopped wanting"
• Perfect Desiderative Inchoative 'ahu- "wanted to start"
• Perfect Desiderative Cessative 'ab(SV) "wanted to stop"
• Perfect Desiderative Desiderative 'eumi- "wanted to want"

Imperfect Aspect

• Simple Imperfect: (no prefix)
• Imperfect Inchoative ki- "starts"
• Imperfect Cessative n(SV)- "stops"
• Imperfect Desiderative mau- "wants to"
• Imperfect Inchoative Inchoative tlha- "is about to"
• Imperfect Inchoative Cessative 'ina- "is about to stop"
• Imperfect Inchoative Desiderative ghi- "begins to want"
• Imperfect Cessative Cessative di- "finishes"
• Imperfect Cessative Desiderative 'iš(SV)- "stops wanting"
• Imperfect Desiderative Inchoative xa- "wants to start"
• Imperfect Desiderative Cessative dja- "wants to stop"
• Imperfect Desiderative Desiderative mi- "wants to want"

There are several other aspects that can be applied as prefixes. Each affix modifies the whole word including any affixes that follow it before the root, so the order in which they are applied is important.

• Habilitative xi- indicates that the action is possible, equivalent to English constructions with "can".
• Benefactive kje- indicates that the action is beneficial to society.
• Punctual dji- indicates that an action occurs suddenly or instantaneously.
• Excessive sja- indicates that an action is performed "too much"; also used with static verbs.
• Habitual 'aa- indicates that the statement is generally true.
• Iterative 'an(a)- indicates that the action is performed repeatedly.

Evidentiality

• -i- The event or state is common knowledge
• -a- The speaker knows about the event from another, identifiable source
• -aa- The speaker directly experienced this event
• -u- The truth of the event is subject to opinion
• -e- The speaker merely hypothesizes that the event occurs.

Example Sentences

xakjebaugžebitlhani

xa-kje-baugže-b-i-tlh-a-n-i'

IMP.DES.INC-BEN-frighten.away-NARR-HEARSAY-AGT3.1-NEUTRAL-PAT1-PL

"He began to want to benefit society by scaring us away."