Senjecas Inflection

Glossing abbreviations

1s/p = first person singular/plural	V(.s/p) = vocative (singular/plural)	CAUS = causative	EQU = equative degree	INS = instrument	Q = interrogative particle
2s/p = second person singular/plural	ABS = absolutive (an unmarked modifying adjective)	CONV = conversive	F = feminine	INT = intensive prefix	QUOT = direct quotation
3p/m/d = third person proximal/medial/distal	ADV = adverb	DES = desiderative	FRQ = frequentative	M = masculine	REL = relativizer
	AG = agent	DIM = diminutive	FUT = future	PP = patient (past) participle	RPRF = recent perfective
A(.s/p) = accusative (singular/plural)	AP = agent (active) participle	ELIS = elision	IMP = imperative	PRF = perfect	SBJ = subjunctive
G(.s/p) = genitive (singular/plural)	AUG = augmentative	EP = epenthesis	INC = inchoative	PRV = privative prefix	SUP = supine
N(.s/p) = nominative (singular/plural)		ELT = elative	IND = indicative	PST = past

Part II – INFLECTION - pűlo b - sűűa

• Senjecas is a combination of both an analytic (or isolating) language and an inflected language. Inflection is a change in the form of a word which is made to express its relation to other words. It includes the declension of nouns, adjectives, participles, and pronouns, and the conjugation of verbs. In the process of inflection, suffixes are added to a root which conveys the fundamental idea underlying the word.

2.1 Verbs – ka̋a̋tos

• 2.1.1 Verbs are words that convey an action (e.g., bring, read, walk, run, learn) or a state of being (e.g., be, exist, stand). Senjecas is primarily a language of verbs, the verb being considered the most important part of a sentence. A major portion of the Senjecan Vabulary is based on verbal roots.

• 2.1.2 The root of a verb is the verb minus the mood suffix. As this root is never found alone, in the dictionary the indicative form is used, e.g., m̃e̋na. This form is the lemma for verbs.

• 2.1.3 A finite verb is marked only for mood. The verb has three moods: the indicative (IND), the subjunctive (SBJ), and the imperative (IMP). In the indicative, a statement of fact is made. In the subjunctive, a statement of unreality or uncertainty is made. In the imperative, a command is given. These moods are called finite moods. The subjunctive is also called a dependent mood. To the root is added <-a> for the indicative mood, <-o> for the subjunctive mood, and <-e> for the imperative mood. There is no infinitive.

• 2.1.4 Verbs are not marked for tense. A proclitic is used to indicate time when necessary. <e-> is used to indicate past time (PST). <u-> is used to indicate future time (FUT). They are joined to the verb by a hyphen (ƣeðbőto), e.g., pe̋ua, seek; e-pe̋ua, sought.

If the verb has a prefix, the proclitic is inserted between the prefix and the verb, e.g., an-e-ża̋ba, he looked up.

• 2.1.5 The verb has only one voice, the active. In the active voice, the subject is the doer or agent of the action of the verb. A periphrastic middle voice, in which the subject acts upon himself, is formed by using the reflexive proclitic mi- (self) as the direct object of the verb. A periphrastic passive voice, in which the grammatical subject is the recipient of the action of the verb, is formed by using the verb ı̋la (become) with the patient participle. An accusative sentence, e.g., "sheep slaughter easily," is not possible in Senjecas. It must be rendered as the periphrastic passive, "sheep are (become) slaughtered easily".

• 2.1.6 The verbal noun is known as the supine (kaaþfe̋e̋to). It is formed by adding -u to the verb root, e.g., tőla, determine; tőlu, (to) determine. It is not to be confused with the deverbative noun, e.g., determination, which is a noun of the -a class, e.g., tőlra, determination.

• 2.1.7 Senjecan verbs are divided into two classes:
  • 2.1.7.1 Class I verbs are those with an initial consonant, e.g., tőla, determine.

	imperfective	perfective
indicative active	tőla	tŭtőla
subjunctive active	tole̋ȝa	tŭtole̋ȝa
imperative active	tőle
indicative active participle	tőlanti	tŭtőlanti
subjunctive active participle	tole̋ȝanti	tŭtole̋ȝanti
indicative patient participle	tőlanti	tŭtőlanti
subjunctive patient participle	tőlonti	tŭtőlonti

• • 2.1.7.2 Class II verbs are those which begin with a vowel, e.g., űða, own.

	imperfective	perfective
indicative active	űða	űűða
subjunctive active	uðe̋ȝa	uuðe̋ȝa
imperative active	űðe
indicative active participle	űðanti	űűðanti
subjunctive active participle	űðonti	űűðonti
indicative patient participle	űðaþi	űűðaþi
subjunctive patient participle	uðe̋ȝaþi	uuðe̋ȝaþi

2.2 Nouns – fe̋e̋tos

• 2.2.1 Nouns are words that designate a person, a thing, a place or an abstraction.

• 2.2.2 Nouns and adjectives have but one root, which is the word minus the declensional ending, e.g., sı̋þ-o, ladder. This root plus the nominative singular declensional ending is the lemma for nouns.

• 2.2.3 There are two numbers, singular (s) and plural (p). The singular denotes a single item. The plural denotes more than one item.

• 2.2.4 There are four cases, nominative (N), genitive (G), accusative (A), and vocative (V).

• 2.2.5 There are six classes of nouns, one for each of the vowels.
  • 2.2.5.1 The -i class contains animate nouns that name plants, and nouns in -t̬i, which are, for the most part, vegetable in origin, e.g., a̋spi, aspen.
  • 2.2.5.2 The –e class contains animate nouns that name animals, e.g., ṡa̋se, hare.
  • 2.2.5.3 The –a class contains inanimate abstract nouns, e.g., vűga, flight.
  • 2.2.5.4 The –ǫ class contains animate nouns that name aberrant creatures, e.g., marǧe̋nǫ, mermaid.
  • 2.2.5.5 The –o class contains inanimate concrete nouns, e.g., ta̋a̋ino, stone.
  • 2.2.5.6 The –u class contains animate nouns that name loquent beings, e.g., a̋npu, mother-in-law.

	-i	-e	-a	-ǫ	-o	-u
Nominative singular	a̋spi	ṡa̋se	vűga	marǧe̋nǫ	ta̋a̋ino	a̋npu
Nominative plural	a̋spis	ṡa̋ses		marǧe̋nǫs	ta̋a̋inos	a̋npus
Genitive singular	aspı̋s	ṡase̋s	vuga̋s	marǧenǫ̋s	ta̋ainős	anpűs
Genitive plural	aspı̋m	ṡase̋m		marǧenǫ̋m	taainőm	anpűm
Accusative singular	a̋spim	ṡa̋sem	vűgam	marǧe̋nǫm	ta̋a̋inom	a̋npum
Accusative plural	a̋spin	ṡa̋sen		marǧe̋nǫn	ta̋a̋inon	a̋npun
Vocative singular	aspı̋	ṡase̋	vuga̋	marǧenǫ̋	taainő	anpű
Vocative plural	aspı̋s	ṡase̋s		marǧenǫ̋s	taainős	anpűs

2.2.5.7 ma̋a̋ma, mother, and ta̋a̋ta, father, and their compounds, are declined like regular <-a> nouns.

2.3 Adjectives and determiners - feeþga̋nlosk̬e rexsa̋m̃osk̬e

• 2.3.1 There are two types of words that can be used to qualify nouns: adjectives and determiners.

• 2.3.2 Determiners single out the noun qualified, rather than describe it. Among the determiners in Senjecas are the interrogative adjectives and the cardinal numerals.

• 2.3.3 There is no definite article.

• 2.3.4 There is no indefinite article.

• 2.3.5 The place of the demonstrative adjectives is taken by the proclitics <i-> for "this", <e-> for "that", and <o-> for "yon". When used as adjectives, si means "the latter" and ni, "the former". so and no are also used as the demonstrative pronouns.

• 2.3.6 The place of the possessive adjectives is taken by the proclitics <mu-> for "my"; <tu-> for "your (singular)"; <s-> for ""his, her, its, their (proximal 3rd person) and your (polite)"; <n-> for "his, her, its, their (distal 3rd person); <þ-> for "his, her, its, their" ("his, her, its, their (remote 3rd person)), <m̃u-> for "our"; and <ȝu-> for "your (plural)": nu-ta̋a̋ta, his father; ne-va̋los, its leaves; m̃u-m̃e̋e̋so, our house; ða̋lo tu-ṡa̋bo, your green hat; su-mı̋ı̋ðtu vı̋du fa̋rame: Is your majesty ready to leave?

• 2.3.7 The demonstrative proclitic may be emphasized by following the noun with the emphatic enclitic -ṡe: e-ta̋a̋ino, that stone; e-ta̋a̋ino-ṡe, that stone right there; o–se̋ro, yon table; o–se̋ro-ṡe, yon table way over there.

• 2.3.8 The interrogative adjectives are xi, which, and xőti, how-, -much, -many.

• 2.3.9 Adjectives describe a noun or pronoun. When used attributively they agree with the nouns they qualify in class only. This is called the absolutive (ABS) use of the adjective.

gőbu m̃ı̋ru - the handsome man

gőbu-Ø	m̃ı̋r-u
handsome-ABS	man-N.s

gőbu m̃ı̋rűs o - to the handsome man

gőbu-Ø	m̃ir-űs	o
handsome-ABS	man-G.s	for

When used in the predicate they agree in class, case and number, e.g.,

i-m̃ı̋rus gőbus vűűa - these men are handsome

i-m̃ı̋r-us	gőb-us	vűű-a
this-man-N.p	handsome-N.p	be-IND

o-ǧa̋ros őőnos e̋sa - yon mountains are high

o-ǧa̋r-os	őőn-os	e̋s-a
yon-mountain-N.p	high-N.p	be-IND

• 2.3.10 Participles are verbal adjectives. There is a participle for each time, aspect and mood of the verb. v. 3.1.9.

• 2.3.11 The active participles (AP) are formed by suffixing <-nt-> to the modal root of the verb, e.g., m̃e̋na, love, m̃e̋nanti, loving. The primary accent remains on the root vowel.

• 2.3.12 The passive participles (PP) are formed by suffixing <-þ-> to the modal root of the verb, e.g., m̃e̋na, love, m̃e̋naþi, loved. The primary accent remains on the root vowel.

• 2.3.13 A characteristic of adjectives (and adverbs) is that they can be compared.

• 2.3.14 There is only one degree of comparison, known as the elative (ELT), which is used for both the comparative and the superlative. The elative degree is formed by reduplicating the first consonant of the word. This is then linked to the word by vowel harmony.
  • 2.3.14.1 If the root vowel is a front vowel (<i>, <e>, <a>), then the linking vowel is <ĭ>, e.g., ze̋gi, brave; zĭze̋gi, braver/bravest.
  • 2.3.14.2 If the root vowel is a back vowel (<ǫ>, <o>, <u>), then the linking vowel is <ŭ>, e.g., sőȝi, cold; sŭsőȝi, colder/coldest.
  • 2.3.14.3 If the word begins with a vowel (or diphthong), then the vowel (or diphthong) and first consonant are reduplicated: a̋sti, cunning; asa̋sti, more/most cunning; ǫ̋ri, severe; ǫrǫ̋ri, more/most severe.
  • 2.3.14.4 If the root vowel is long, the vowel of the reduplicated syllable is shortened: e̋e̋di, silly; ede̋e̋di, sillier/silliest.

• 2.3.15 There are no suppletive forms as in English, e.g., good/better.

• 2.3.16 The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the genitive case followed by the postposition sóma, in comparison to. Because the genitive singular ends in –s, the –s is elided in front of the postposition.

The father is wiser than the son.

ta̋a̋ta suunű' sóma sĭsa̋a̋ṡu e̋sa:

ta̋a̋t-a	suun-ű-'	sóma	sĭ~sa̋a̋ṡ-u	e̋s-a
father-N.s	son-G.s-ELIS	than	ELT~wise-N.s	be-IND

• 2.3.17 Negative elative adjectives are formed by modifying the adjective with the adverb lísu, less. The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the genitive case followed by the postposition sóma, in comparison to.

This river is less swift than that one.

i-da̋a̋e lísu őṡe né' sóma e̋sa:

i=da̋a̋-e	lísu	őṡ-e	n-é-'	sóma	e̋s-a
this-river-N.s	less	swift-N.s	3m-G.s-ELIS	than	be-IND

• 2.3.18 Adjectives form the equative degree (EQU) (as...as) by adding the suffix -sta̋li to the root of the adjective. The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the genitive case followed by the postposition sóma, in comparison to.

This butterfly is as blue as that one.

i-paape̋le kooxĕsta̋le né' sóma e̋sa:

i=paapı̋l-e	koox-sta̋l-e	n-e-'	sóma	e̋s-a
this-butterfly-N.s	blue-EQU-N.s	3m-G.s-ELIS	than	be-IND

• 2.3.19 When a noun is modified attributively by an equative adjective, a compound adjective is formed.

He is as strong as a bear.

su verm̃a̋lu vűűa:

s-u	ver-m̃a̋l-u	vűű-a
3p-N.s	bear-strong-N.s	be-IND

2.4 Numerals – lűkos

• 2.4.1 The Sefdaanian numerical system uses base 10. There are individual names for the numbers 1-10 and for the numbers for one hundred up through ten trillion. A table of these may be found at 2.4.17.

• 2.4.2 The cardinal numerals for 100 and above are nouns of quantity. They are plural in form when used in compound numerals.

• 2.4.3 The numbers for the decades are formed by suffixing the noun főős, tens, to the cardinal number, e.g., tı̋rfoos, 30.

• 2.4.4 In a similar way, the hundreds after 100 are formed by placing the required cardinal before sa̋tos, e.g., tir sa̋tos, 300.

• 2.4.5 In a similar way, the thousands after 1,000 are formed by placing the required cardinal number before the plural noun t̨űmos, e.g., d̬o ţűmos, 2,000.

• 2.4.6 This process is continued with the numeric nouns beyond 1,000, e.g., saad űl̬os, six trillion.

• 2.4.7 The cardinal numerals are formed by juxtaposing the numbers.

d̬ófoos d̬ő	náálfoos nűm	naal sa̋tos pénfoos bı̋n	sef t̨űmos saað sa̋tos d̬ófoos bı̋n
22	49	458	7,628

• 2.4.8 A discrete number is treated as a compound noun with respect to intonation. E.g., in the number 458 given above, note that the primary accent is on the noun sa̋tos and the cardinal number bı̋n. A secondary accent is placed on the numbers, e.g., náálfoos.

• 2.4.9 Numerals may be used attributively, e.g., mu d̬ő na̋a̋ȝen e-na̋ka, I saw two dogs. They may not be used pronominally. A sentence like "I saw two" must be phrased with a pronoun "I saw two of them", mu d̬ő non e-na̋ka. Note that "them" is in the accusative case as the direct object of the verb, literally "I saw two thems".

• 2.4.10 When the hundreds, and above, are used attributively the item being counted is put in the genitive case. The noun of quantity, e.g., sa̋tos, hundred, is placed in the class of the item numbered.

There are four hundred cows.

m̃ake̋m na̋a̋l sa̋tes vűűla:

m̃ak-e̋m	na̋a̋l	sa̋t-es	vűűl-a
cow-G.p	four	hundred-N.p	there.be-IND

But, when simple or compound numerals are added to these nouns of quantity the conjunction da joins them.

There are four hundred one cows.

m̃ake̋m na̋a̋l sa̋tes da þűn vűűla:

m̃ak-e̋m	na̋a̋l	sa̋t-es	da	þűn	vűűl-a
cow-G.p	four	hundred-N.p	and	one	there.be-IND

• 2.4.11 The ordinal numerals beyond "twentieth" are formed by juxtaposing the required ordinals, the smaller placed last, and the last element of the number taking the ordinal ending, e.g., d̬ofőősti, twentieth; þűnti, first; d̬ofőős þűnti, twenty-first.

• 2.4.12 The adverbial numbers expressing “how many times” are formed by adding the suffix –s to the cardinal number, e.g., d̬ő, two; d̬ós, twice. Note the accent change from primary to secondary, since the adjective has become an adverb.

• 2.4.13 Multiplicative numbers expressing “how many times as many” are formed by adding the suffix -k̬őti to the cardinal number, e.g., d̬ok̬őti, twice as many. What is being compared is in the genitive case with the postposition sóma.

He has twice as many horse as me.

su mú' sóma d̬ok̬őte mőren űða:

s-u	m-ú'	sóma	do-k̬őte-Ø	mőr-en	űð-a
3p-N.s	1s-G-ELIS	than	two-as.many-ABS	horse-A.p	possess-IND

• 2.4.14 Distributive numbers expressing “at a time” are formed by duplicating the required number.

The men crossed the bridge two at a time.

m̃ı̋rus d̬ód̬o þőlom e-ta̋ra:

m̃ı̋r-us	d̬ó~d̬o	þől-om	e=ta̋r-a
man-N.p	two~at.a.time	bridge-A.s	PST=cross-IND

• 2.4.15 Distributive numbers expressing “each” are formed by adding the adjective nı̋ı̋gi, each, to the cardinal number.

We split into groups of three each.

m̃us tirnı̋ı̋go le̋żon éna e-pűla:

m̃-us	tir-nı̋ı̋go	le̋ż-on	éna	e=pűl-a
1p-N	three-each	group-A.p	into	PST=split-IND

• 2.4.16 As with the ordinals, the compound numbers are repeated with the proper ending suffixed to the last element, e.g., d̬őfoos d̬ós, twenty-two times; tı̋rfoos tirpe̋li, thirty-three-fold; na̋a̋lfoos penk̬őti, forty-five times as many.

• 2.4.17 In the case of compound numbers expressing "at a time", only the last element of the number is repeated: pe̋nfoos númnum, fifty-nine at a time.

• 2.4.18 Table of numerals.

#	cardinal	ordinal	multiple	adverbial	collective	fraction	distributive
1	þűn	þűnti	þunpe̋li	þúns	þűnȝo	-	þun̈ı̋ı̋gi
2	d̬ő	d̬őti	d̬ope̋li	d̬ós	d̬őȝo	d̬one̋mo	d̬osnı̋ı̋gi
3	tı̋r	tı̋rti	tirpe̋li	tírs	tı̋rȝo	tirne̋mo	tirnı̋ı̋gi
4	na̋a̋l	na̋a̋lti	naalpe̋li	naáls	na̋a̋lȝo	naalne̋mo	naalnı̋ı̋gi
5	pe̋n	pe̋nti	penpe̋li	péns	pe̋nȝo	pen̈e̋mo	pen̈ı̋ı̋gi
6	sa̋a̋d	sa̋a̋ðti	saaðpe̋li	sááðs	sa̋a̋ðȝo	saaðne̋mo	saaðnı̋ı̋gi
7	se̋f	se̋fti	sefpe̋li	séfs	se̋fȝo	sefne̋mo	sefnı̋ı̋gi
8	bı̋n	bı̋nti	binpe̋li	bíns	bı̋nȝo	bin̈e̋mo	bin̈ı̋ı̋gi
9	nűm	nűmti	numpe̋li	núms	nűmȝo	numne̋mo	numnı̋ı̋gi
10	főő	főőti	foope̋li	fóós	főőȝo	foone̋mo	foonı̋ı̋gi
20	d̬őfoos	d̬ofőőti	d̬ófoope̋li	d̬ófoos	d̬ofőőȝo	d̬ófoone̋mo	d̬ófoonı̋ı̋gi
100	sa̋to	sa̋þti	sa̋þpe̋li	sáþs	sa̋þȝo	saþne̋mo	saþnı̋ı̋gi

2.5 Pronouns – ðeefe̋e̋tos

• 2.5.1 Pronouns are words that can be substituted for nouns. The following types of pronouns may be found in Senjecas: personal, intensive, reciprocal, demonstrative, interrogative, indefinite, reflexive and possessive.

• 2.5.2 The personal pronouns are mu, I; tu, you; m̃us, we; and ȝus, you. The third person pronouns are su (proximal), nu (medial), and þu (distal), he, she, and it; and sus, nus and þus, they. These pronouns are put into the appropriate class and case of the noun for which they are substituting, e.g., na̋a̋ȝe, ne, [the] dog, it; ı̋ı̋m̃i, ni, [the] yew tree, it; ta̋a̋ino, no, [the] rock, it. If a human is talking about himself, he says mu. If a merman is talking about himself, he says mǫ.

	1st singular	1st plural	2nd singular	2nd plural
Nominative	mu	m̃us	tu	ȝus
Genitive	mús	m̃úm	tús	ȝúm
Accusative	mum	m̃un	tum	ȝun
Vocative	-	-	tú	ȝú

	3rd singular proximal	3rd plural proximal	3rd singular medial	3rd plural medial	3rd singular distal	3rd plural distal
Nominative	su	sus	nu	nus	þu	þus
Genitive	sús	súm	nús	núm	þús	þúm
Accusative	sum	sun	num	nun	þum	þun

• 2.5.3 The third personal pronoun distal is þu. It indicates a more distal referent than the third person medial. The distinction between third medial and third distal changes when a new third person is specified, e.g.,

The man approached the woman. He spoke to her.

m̃ı̋ru ǧe̋num e-ȝőba: su nús o e-te̋e̋a:

The woman looked up. She answered him.

ǧe̋nu an-e-ża̋ba: su num e-kı̋ra:

• 2.5.4 There is no implication of gender in the third person pronouns. To specify the gender, the gender-marking prefixes must be used, ur-nu, he; ii-nu, she. These are proclitics and the tone remains on the pronoun.

• 2.5.5 The third proximal pronoun refers to the subject of the sentence, e.g., hűsu su-ma̋a̋mam m̃e̋na, the boy loves his mother; mőre se-ṡőinom e-e̋da, the horse ate its hay.

• 2.5.6 The third medial pronoun refers to a person or object other than the subject of the sentence, e.g., hűsu num m̃e̋na, the boy loves her.

• 2.5.7 The third distal pronoun refers to a person or object even farther from the subject of the sentence.

the boy loves his mother, but not him.

hűsu su-ma̋a̋mam m̃e̋na. ésti þum ne:

• 2.5.8 The intensive pronoun is formed by suffixing -va, to the personal pronouns, e.g., mu e-a̋ta, I went; mu-va u-a̋ta, I myself will go. -va is an enclitic and the tone remains on the pronoun: m̃úm-va o, to us ourselves.

• 2.5.9 The reciprocal pronoun is formed by prefixing an-, other, to the personal pronouns which are then declined in the usual way (v. 3.5.2).

They love each other.

sus an̈un m̃e̋na:

s-us	an-s-un	e=m̃e̋n-a
3p-N.p	other-3p-A.p	PST=love-IND

• 2.5.10 The demonstrative pronouns are so, this, referring to what is near in place, time or thought; no, that, referring to what is more remote; and þo, that over there, referring to what is even more remote. They are declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (v. 3.5.2).

• 2.5.11 The unemphatic demonstrative, which is often used in English as the antecedent of a relative, is not expressed in Senjecas. Instead a participle is used.

I saw those who are going.

mu a-a̋tantun e-na̋ka:

m-u	a=a̋t-a-nt-un	e=na̋k-a
1-N.s	that=go-IND-AP-A.p	PST=see-IND

I saw those who had gone.

mu a-e-a̋a̋tantun e-na̋ka:

m-u	a=e=a̋~a̋t-a-nt-un	e=na̋k-a
1s-N	that=PST=PRF~go-IND-AP-A.p	PST=see-IND

• 2.5.12 The interrogative pronoun is xu. It is declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (v. 3.5.2).

Who is calling/paying a call?

xu nı̋ma:

x-u	nı̋m-a
who-N.s	pay.a.call-IND

Whom have you chosen?

tu xum őőpa:

t-u	x-um	ő~őp-a
2s-N	who-A.s	PRF~choose-IND

• 2.5.13 There is also a dual interrogative pronoun xutéru, who/which of two. It is declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (v. 3.5.2).

• 2.5.14 The indefinite pronouns are tííðu, someone, and tííðo, something. The negative indefinite pronouns are netííðu, no one, nobody, and netííðo, nothing. They are declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (v. 3.5.2).

• 2.5.15 The reflexive pronoun is formed by prefixing the proclitic mi- to the required personal pronoun.

He wounded himself.

su mi-sum e-m̃a̋a̋a:

s-u	mi=s-um	e=m̃a̋a̋-a
3p-N.s	self=3p-A.s	PST=wound-IND

I gave myself a black eye.

mu mimús o kist̬a̋lom e-dőőa:

m-u	mi=m-ús	o	kis-t̬a̋l-om	e=dőő-a
1s-N	self=1s-G	to	bruise-eye-A.s	PST=give-IND

2.6 Adverbs - kaaþga̋nlos

• 2.6.1. An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, determiner, noun phrase, clause, or sentence. This function is called the adverbial function, and may be realized by single words (adverbs) or by multi-word expressions (adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses).

• 2.6.2. Certain words are, of their nature, adverbs, e.g., íðu, here. Adverbs of this type end in -u.

• 2.6.3 Any adjective may be used as an adverb. When used in this way, the enclitic -(ĕ)vi is added to the root of the adjective. The primary accent of the adjective is reduced to a secondary accent on the adverb.

These brave men fought.

ze̋gu i-m̃ı̋rus e-ṡa̋ta:

ze̋gu-Ø	i=m̃ı̋r-us	e=ṡa̋t-a
brave-ABS	this=man-N.p	PST=fight-IND

These men fought bravely.

i-m̃ı̋rus zéƣvi e-ṡa̋ta:

i=m̃ı̋r-us	zéƣ=vi	e=ṡa̋t-a
this=man-N.p	brave=ADV	PST=fight-IND

• 2.6.4 Adverbial numerals are formed by suffixing –s, to the ordinal number, e.g., þűn, one; þúns, once; sa̋to, hundred; sáþs, a hundred times.

• 2.6.5 Adverbs of nominal location are formed by adding the proper suffix to the root of the noun, common or proper, e.g., nőmo, home; nómþi, at home; nómþis, from home; nómþim, (to) home.

• 2.6.6 Adverbs form their comparatives and superlatives in the same way as the adjectives (v. 3.3.14 ).

These men fought more bravely than those.

i-m̃ı̋rus núm sóma zĭzéƣvi e-ṡa̋ta:

i=m̃ı̋r-us	n-úm	sóma	zĭ~zéƣ=vi	e=ṡa̋t-a
this=man-N.p	3m-G.p	than	ELT~brave=ADV	PST=fight-ADV