Senjecas Syntax Pt. 2

Pronunciation table

p	b	f	v	m̃	m			t	d	þ	ð	ɫ	l			ṡ	ż	s	z	r	n			k	g	x	ƣ	h	ȝ			š	s̨			i	e	a	õ	o	u			ĭ	ĕ	ŭ
/p/	/b/	/ɸ/	/β/	/m̥/	/m/			/t/	/d/	/θ/	/ð/	/l̥/	/l/			/ʦ/	/ʣ/	/s/	/z/	/ɾ̥/	/n/			/k/	/g/	/ç/	/ʝ/	/j̊/	/j/			/sʷ/	/sʲ/			/i/	/e/	/ä/	/ɒ/	/o/	/u/			/ɪ/	/ɛ/	/ʊ/

Glossing abbreviations

1s/p = first person singular/plural	V(.s/p) = vocative (singular/plural)	CAUS = causative	EQU = equative degree	INS = instrument	Q = interrogative particle
2s/p = second person singular/plural	ABS = absolutive (an unmarked modifying adjective)	DES = desiderative	F = feminine	INT = intensive prefix	QUOT = direct quotation
3p/m = third person proximal/medial	ADV = adverb	DIM = diminutive	FRQ = frequentative	M = masculine	REL = relativizer
4 = fourth person	AG = agent	ELIS = elision	FUT = future	PP = patient (past) participle	RPRF = recent perfective
A(.s/p) = accusative (singular/plural)	AP = agent (active) participle	EP = epenthesis	IMP = imperative	PRF = perfect	SBJ = subjunctive
G(.s/p) = genitive (singular/plural)	AUG = augmentative	ELT = elative	INC = inchoative	PRV = privative prefix	SUP = supine
N(.s/p) = nominative (singular/plural)			IND = indicative	PST = past

4.8.5 Supine – kaaþfe̋e̋to

4.8.5.1 As there are no infinitives or gerunds in Senjecas, a form of the verb in -u is used in their place. This form is called the supine.

I can swim.

mu še̋mu ma̋ƣa:

4.8.5.2 A modifying adverb will precede the supine.

I can swim well.

mu súvi še̋mu ma̋ƣa:

4.8.5.3 Indirect quotations and questions are expressed by transforming the verb of the direct statement into the corresponding supine. The subject of the verb is in the accusative case. The tense of the supine remains the same as in the direct question. The interrogative word is retained. An interrogative word is placed in the sentence according to its function in the sentence. This is not necessarily first in the sentence. The indirect quotation or question is set off from the main clause by em dashes.

I've done that. I told you (that) I've done that.

mu som kĭkı̋a: mu tús o—mum som kĭkı̋u—e-te̋e̋a:

m-u	s-om	kĭ~kı̋-a			m-u	t-ús	o	m-um	s-om	kĭ~kı̋-u	e=te̋e̋-a
1s-N	3p-A.s	PRF~do-IND			1s-N	2s-G	to	1s-A	3p-A.s	PRF~do-SUP	PST=say-IND

I asked her when she would arrive.

mu sús o—sum xán' u-tőpu—e-me̋ta:

m-u	s-ús	o	s-um	xán-'	u=tőp-u	e=me̋t-a
1s-N	3p-G.s	to	3p-A.s	when-ELIS	FUT-arrive-SUP	PST=ask-IND

4.8.5.4 The finite dependent verb may depend on adjectives corresponding in meaning to verbs which take an object supine, e.g., ability, fitness, desire, willingness.

Wanting to go, he sought permission.

a̋tu m̃e̋ṡantu. su dőram e-ne̋e̋þa:

a̋t-u	m̃e̋ṡ-a-nt-u	n-u	dőr-am	e=ne̋e̋þ-a
go-SUP	wish-IND-AP-N.s	3p-N.s	permission-A.s	PST=seek-IND

4.8.5.5 Any adjective, adverb, noun or verb may take a dependent supine to limit its meaning

This plant is useful for healing.

i-műűlo ȝe̋e̋ku ne̋uðro e̋sa:

i=műűl-o	ȝe̋e̋k-u	ne̋uðr-o	e̋s-a
this=plant-N.s	heal-SUP	useful-N.s	be-IND

The scene was a wonder to behold.

na̋kaþo na̋ku dı̋żo e-e̋sa

na̋k-a-þ-o	na̋k-u	dı̋ż-o	e=e̋s-a
see-IND-PP-N.s	see-SUP	wonder-N.s	PST=be-IND

4.8.5.6 The supine is used where other languages would use the gerund.

Bargaining with the merchant is fun.

k̬apűs þóósa lı̋ku se̋bo vűűa:

k̬ap-űs	þóósa	lı̋k-u	se̋b-o	vűű-a
merchant-G.s	against	bargain-SUP	fun-N.s	be-IND

My wife and I find riding horses very relaxing.

mu-ǧe̋nuk̬e muk̬e lábu ṡa̋lantu mőren re̋iðu de̋e̋sa:

mu=ǧe̋n-u=k̬e	m-u=k̬e	lábu	ṡa̋l-a-nt-u	mőr-en	re̋ið-u	de̋e̋s-a
my=wife-N.s=and	1s-N=and	very	relax-IND-AP-N.s	horse-A.p	ride-SUP	find-IND

4.8.5.7 The infinitive as the subject of a verb is translated by the supine.

To swim (swimming) is healthy.

še̋mu sa̋nu e̋sa:

še̋m-u	sa̋n-u	e̋s-a
swim-SUP	healthy-N.s	be-IND

It is possible for you to do that.

som kı̋u tús o ma̋ƣa:

s-om	kı̋-u	t-ús	o	ma̋ƣ-a
3p-A.s	do-SUP	2s.G	to	be.possible-IND

4.8.6 Participles – kááþfeeþga̋nos

4.8.6.1 The participle is a verbal adjective, in function partaking of the nature of verb and adjective. There are two participles in Senjecas, the agent and the patient. Each of these occurs in all the moods.
- 4.8.6.1.1 The agent participle (AP) is formed by suffixing -nti to the mood root. The agent participle describes that which it modifies as acting, e.g., m̃e̋nanti, loving, as in m̃e̋nantu ta̋a̋ta, loving father.
- 4.8.6.1.2 The patient participle (PP) is formed by suffixing -þi to the mood root. The patient participle describes that which it modifies as being acted upon, e.g., m̃e̋naþi, beloved, as in m̃e̋naþu ta̋a̋ta, beloved father.
4.8.6.2 As with any adjective, participles may take the -u ending and function as nouns, e.g., m̃e̋nantu, lover; m̃e̋naþu, beloved. It is then equivalent to "he who, they who, that which, etc.," in English.

He who is speaking is my father.

ȝe̋kantu mu-ta̋a̋ta e̋sa:

ȝe̋k-a-nt-u	mu=ta̋a̋t-a	e̋s-a
speak-IND-AP-N.s	my=father-N.s	be-IND

4.8.6.3 As an adjective, the participle may be modified by an adverb, e.g., súvi m̃e̋naþu ta̋a̋ta, well-beloved father.

4.8.6.4 As a verb, the participle may take a direct object

Seeing the approaching storm, the girl went back into the house.

ȝővanto ðűűom na̋kantu. ƥa̋þu m̃e̋e̋som éna e-ke̋ra:

ȝőv-a-nto-Ø	ðűű-om	na̋k-a-ntu-Ø	pa̋l̨-u	m̃e̋e̋s-om	éna	e=ke̋r-a
approach-IND-AP-ABS	storm-A.s	see-IND-AP-ABS	girl-N.s	house-A.s	into	PST=return-IND

4.9 Absolute Constructions – m̃ı̋ı̋o ȝe̋xtos

Adverbial clauses may be translated by absolute constructions. Absolute constructions consist of a noun or pronoun and a participle which are not grammatically connected with the main clause. The noun or pronoun may not refer to the subject of the sentence.

- 4.9.1 When the absolute construction describes a non-motion event, the construction is in the genitive case.

When he was prince, we were happy.

sús asurűs e-vuuantűs. m̃us ka̋itus e-vűűa.'

s-ús	asur-űs	e=vuu-a-nt-űs	m̃-us	ka̋it-us	e=vűű-a
3p-G.s	prince-G.s	PST=be-IND-AP-G.s	1p-N	happy-N.p	PST=be-IND

While they are eating, the chorus is singing.

súm edantűm. ga̋a̋ilus ga̋a̋ȝa:

s-úm	ed-a-nt-űm	ga̋a̋i-l-us	ga̋a̋ȝ-a
3p-G.p	eat-IND-AP-G.p	sing-AG-N.p	sing-IND

- 4.9.2 When the absolute construction describes an event involving motion, the construction is in the accusative case.

After the army had crossed the bridge, the citizens fled.

őmum þőlom tĭta̋rantum. e̋nrus e-őőða:

őm-um	þől-om	tĭ~ta̋r-a-nt-um	e̋nr-us	e=őőð-a
army-A.s	bridge-A.s	PRF~cross-IND-AP-A.s	citizen-N.p	PST=flee-IND

Before the army neared the bridge, the citizens fled.

őmum þőlom e-ȝőbantum. e̋nrus e-őőða:

őm-um	þől—om	e=ȝőb-a-nt-um	e̋nr-us	e=őőð-a
army-A.s	bridge-A.s	PST=approach-IND-AP-A.s	citizen-N.p	PST=flee-IND

4.10 Subordinate Clauses – fasm̃a̋iþo

A subordinate clause does not express a complete thought and is, therefore, attached to an independent clause. Although a subordinate clause contains a subject and a predicate, it sounds incomplete when standing alone. A subordinate clause is joined to a sentence with a subordinate conjunction and follows the sentence. A period is used to separate the subordinate clause from the main clause. There is no distinction made in Senjecas between restrictive and non-restrictive clauses.

4.10.1 Adverbial clauses with the indicative mood – m̃e̋e̋ro kaaþga̋no fasm̃a̋iþos

4.10.1.1 Time clauses (ténfasm̃a̋iþros) indicate when something happens by referring to a period of time or to another event. They are introduced by the conjunctions when, before, after, since, while, as, as long as, until, till, hardly, scarcely, and no sooner.

Her dog died when she was young.

nu-na̋a̋ȝe e-ne̋ṡa. méti be̋ku e-e̋sa:

nu=na̋a̋ȝ-e	e=ne̋ṡ-a	méti	be̋k-u	e=e̋s-a
her=dog-N.s	PST=die-IND	when	young-N.s	PST=be-IND

4.10.1.2. Reason clauses (f̨úúðfasm̃a̋iþros) indicate the reason for something. They are introduced by the conjunctions because, since, as, for, now that, considering that, and given that.

She can’t stay angry, because she loves him.

su ge̋gu še̋du fe̋e̋a. hi num m̃e̋na:

s-u	ge̋g-u	še̋d-u	fe̋e̋-a	hi	n-u	n-um	m̃e̋n-a
3p-N.s	angry-N.s	remain-SUP	unable-IND	because	3m-A.s	love-IND

4.10.1.3 Result clauses (ƥúvfasm̃a̋iþros) indicate the result of some action. They are introduced by the conjunctions that, so that, and with the result that.

My leg hurts so much that I cannot walk.

la̋ko šo méévi de̋ba. ƥúvi ne̋ðu fe̋e̋a:

la̋k-o	šo	meé-vi	de̋b-a	ƥúvi	ne̋ð-u	fe̋e̋-a
leg-N.s	so	much-ADV	hurt-IND	so.that	walk-SUP	unable-IND

He opened the window so roughly that it broke.

su šo féðvi tűngom e-lűra. ƥúvi no e-ȝa̋fa:

s-u	šo	féð-vi	tűng-om	e=lűr-a	ƥúvi	no	e=ȝa̋f-a
3p-N.s	so	force-ADV	window-A.s	PST=open-IND	so.that	3m-N.s	PST=break-IND

4.10.1.4 Concessive clauses (áifasm̃a̋iþros) indicate that one statement contrasts with another. They are introduced by the conjunctions although, (even) though, and while.

We will leave, even though it is raining.

m̃us u-vı̋da. sámi sűűma:

m̃-us	u=vı̋d-a	sámi	sűűm-a
1p-N	FUT=leave-IND	even.though	rain-IND

4.10.1.5 Clauses of place (ðééfasm̃a̋iþros) indicate the location or position of something. They are introduced by the adverbs that answer the question “where?”: anywhere, everywhere, etc.

The child is happy where he is.

ṡı̋ṡu ka̋itu vűűa. vái vűűa:

ṡı̋ṡ-u	ka̋it-u	vűű-a	vái	vűű-a
child-N.s	happy-N.s.	be-IND	where	be-IND

4.10.1.6 Clauses of manner (móóðfasm̃a̋iþros) indicate someone's behavior or the way something is done. They are introduced by the conjunctions as, like, and the way.

The soldiers carried out the plan as the general had ordered.

sőþlus pe̋e̋kam e-þűka. épi soþve̋e̋l̤u e-e̋e̋va:

sőþ-l-us	pe̋e̋k-am	e=þűk-a	épi	soþ-ve̋e̋l-l-u	e=e̋~e̋v-a
war-AG-N.p	plan-A.s	PST=carry.out-IND	as	war-in.charge-AG-N.s	PST=PRF~order-IND

4.10.2 Adverbial clauses with the subjunctive mood – fa̋so kaaþga̋no fasm̃a̋iþos

4.10.2.1 Conditional clauses (k̨árfasm̃a̋iþros) indicate a possible or counterfactual situation and its consequences. They are introduced by the words if, unless, and lest. The verb in conditional clauses is in the subjunctive mood.

If it rains tomorrow, we won’t go.

m̃us u-a̋ta ne. ébi ṡúm̃vi sűűm̃ȝa:

m̃-us	u=a̋t-a	ne	ébi	ṡúm̃-vi	sűűm̃-o
1p-N	FUT=go-IND	not	if	tomorrow-ADV	rain-SBJ

4.10.2.2 Clauses of purpose (táðfasm̃a̋iþros) indicate the purpose of an action. They are introduced by the words so that and in order that.

He steadied the horse so that she could mount.

ur-su mőrem e-pa̋ga. táád' ii-nu pűűnu maƣe̋ȝa:

ur=s-u	mőr-em	e=pa̋g-a	táád-'	ii=n-u	pűűn-u	maƣ-e̋ȝ-a
M=3p-N.s	horse-A.s	PST=steady-IND	so.that-ELIS	F=3m.N.s	mount-SUP	be.able-SBJ-IND

Clauses of purpose may not be deranked in Senjecas. It is possible to say, “He steadied the horse so that he could mount,” but it is impossible to say, “He steadied the horse in order to mount.”

4.10.3 Noun clauses with the indicative mood – ȝe̋to fe̋e̋to fasm̃a̋iþos

A noun clause can be used like a noun. It can be a subject, predicate nominative, direct object, appositive, indirect object, or the object of a preposition. Some of the relative conjunctions, adverbs, and pronouns that introduce noun clauses are that, whether, who, whom, why, what, how, when, whoever, whomever, and where.
Noun clauses are introduced by the relative word ȝ-, who, which, etc. Noun clauses are placed where a simple noun would be placed.

4.10.3.1 Subject

What you said displeases me.

ȝom tu e-te̋e̋a—mum sűűra:

ȝ-om	t-u	e=te̋e̋-a	m-um	sűűr-a:
what-A.s	2s-N	PST=say-IND	1s-A	displease-IND

4.10.3.2 Predicate nominative

When the noun clause functions as a predicate nominative the noun clause precedes the main clause.

The good news is that everyone is still here.

ȝa vísu éstu íðu vűűa—va̋a̋do te̋e̋o e̋sa:

ȝa	vís-u	éstu	íðu	vűű-a	va̋a̋do-Ø	te̋e̋-o	e̋s-a
that	everyone-N.s	still	here	be-IND	good-ABS	news-N.s	be-IND

4.10.3.3 Direct Object

I know what you said.

mu—ȝom tu e-te̋e̋a—sa̋a̋ra:

m-u	ȝ-om	t-u	s-om	e=te̋e̋-a	sa̋a̋r-a
1s-N	what-A.s	2s-N	3p-A.s	PST=say-IND	know-IND

I know why you said it.

mu—fúsi tu som e-te̋e̋a—sa̋a̋ra:

m-u	fúsi	t-u	s-om	e=te̋e̋-a	sa̋a̋r-a
1s-N	why	2s-N	3p-A.s	PST=say-IND	know-IND

4.10.3.4 Object of a preposition

He will give this to whoever arrives first.

nu—k̬enús o þúntu tőpa—som u-dőőa:

n-u	k̬en-ús	o	þúnt-u	tőp-a	s-om	u=dőő-a
3m-N.s	whoever-G.s	to	first-ADV	arrive-IND	3p-A.s	FUT=give-IND

4.10.4 Noun clauses with the subjunctive mood – fa̋so fe̋e̋to fasm̃a̋iþos

4.10.4.1 Clauses of fearing (nááfasm̃a̋iþros)

I (feared) was afraid (that) this would happen.

mu—ȝa so moode̋ȝa—e-na̋a̋a:

m-u	ȝa	s-o	mood-e̋ȝ-a	e=na̋a̋-a
1s-N	that	3p-N.s	happen-SBJ-IND	PST=fear-IND

I (feared) was afraid (that) that had happened.

mu—ȝa no e-mŭmoode̋ȝa—e-na̋a̋a:

m-u	ȝa	n-o	e=mŭ~mood-e̋ȝ-a	e=na̋a̋-a
1s-N	thaat	3m-N.s	PST=PRF~happen-SBJ-IND	PST=fear-IND

4.10.4.2 Clauses of hoping (ísfasm̃a̋iþros)

I hope (that) he will come for a visit.

mu—ȝa su ƣőstam tááda u-ǧe̋mo—ı̋ṡa:

m-u	ȝa	s-u	ƣőst-am	tááda	u=ǧe̋m-o	ı̋ṡ-a
1-N.s	that	3p-N.s	visit-A.s	for	FUT=come-SBJ	hope-IND

4.10.4.3 Clauses of desiring (píírfasm̃a̋iþros)

He wants his son to be strong.

su—ȝa sűűnu m̃a̋lu ese̋ȝa —m̃e̋ṡa:

s-u	ȝa	sűűn-u	m̃a̋l-u	es-e̋ȝ-a	m̃e̋ṡ-a
3p-N.s	that	son-N.s	strong-N.s	be-SBJ-IND	want-IND

4.10.5 Adjectival (Relative) Clauses – ȝe̋to gansa̋m̃o fasm̃a̋iþos

Adjectival clauses function as adjectives, answering questions such as "what kind?", "how many?" or "which one?". They are introduced by a relative word and the verb is in the indicative mood. Like all adjectives these clauses precede the noun they describe.

This is the ball (that/which) I was bouncing.

so—ȝom mu e-ı̋ta—ge̋lo e̋sa:

s-o	m-u	ȝ-om	e=ı̋t-a	ge̋l-o	e̋s-a
3p-N.s	1s-N	REL-A.s	PST=bounce-IND	ball-N.s	be-IND

That is the house where I grew up.

no—vái mu e-ƣa̋a̋ra—m̃e̋e̋so e̋sa:

n-o	m-u	vái	e=ƣa̋a̋r-a	m̃e̋e̋s-o	e̋s-a
3m-N.s	1s-N	where	PST=grow.up-IND	house-N.s	be-IND

He is the man whose horse died.

nu—ȝús mőr' e-ne̋ṡa—m̃ı̋ru e̋sa:

n-u	ȝ-ús	mőr-'	e-ne̋ṡ-a	m̃ı̋r-u	e̋s-a
3m-N.s	who-G.s	horse-ELIS	PST=die-IND	man-N.s	be-IND

4.10.6 Conditional clauses – k̨a̋ro fasm̃a̋iþos

Conditional clauses (protasis) are introduced by the conjunction ébi and (with one exception) have their verb in the subjunctive mood. The main clause (apodosis) is introduced by the conjunction toáári and is in the subjunctive mood. In these clauses, the protasis precedes the apodosis. An em dash is used to separate the two clauses.

4.10.6.1 Future More-Vivid sentences express future results of probable or expected conditions. The verb in the apodosis is in the future indicative because it has not happened yet.

If it rains, (then) the roads will be wet.

ébi suum̃e̋ȝa—toáári m̃e̋ȝos ma̋a̋nos u-vűűa:

ébi	suum̃-e̋ȝ-a	toaári	m̃e̋ȝ-os	ma̋a̋n-os	u=vűű-a
if	rain-SBJ-IND	then	road-N.p	wet-N.p	FUT=be-IND

4.10.6.2 Future Less-Vivid sentences express future results for conditions that are considered improbable. In this case, the main verb is also in the subjunctive mood.

If I had enough money, I would buy a boat.

ébi mu ma̋to pı̋ı̋nom e-ud-e̋ȝ-a—toáári na̋a̋m̃om sae̋ȝa:

ébi	m-u	ma̋to-Ø	dőþ-om	e=ud-e̋ȝ-a	toáári	na̋a̋m̃-om	sa-e̋ȝ-a
if	1s-N	enough-ABS	money-A.s	PST=have-SBJ-IND	then	boat-A.s	buy-SBJ-IND

4.10.6.3 Contrafactual sentences (present and past mutatis mutandis) express the results of untrue conditions. Both verbs are in the subjunctive mood.

If I were king (and I'm not), you would be queen.

ébi m' ur̈e̋e̋ƣu vuue̋ȝa—toáári tu ii-re̋e̋ƣu vuue̋ȝa:

ébi	m-'	ur=re̋e̋ƣ-u	vuu-e̋ȝ-a	toáári	t-u	ii=re̋e̋ƣ-u	vuu-e̋ȝ-a
if	1s-ELIS	M=king-N.s	be-SBJ-IND	then	2s-N	F=king-N.s	be-SBJ-IND

If I had been king (and I wasn't), you would have been queen.

ébi m’ ur̈e̋e̋ƣu e-vŭvuue̋ȝa —toáári tu ii-re̋e̋ƣu vŭvuue̋ȝa:

ébi	m-'	ur=re̋e̋ƣ-u	e-vŭ~vuu-e̋ȝ-a	toáári	t-u	ii=re̋e̋ƣ-u	vŭ~vuu-e̋ȝ-a
if	1s-ELIS	M=king-N.s	PST=PRF~be-SBJ-IND	then	2s-N	F=king-N.s	PRF~be-SBJ-IND

4.10.6.4 Present General sentences are an exception. Their verbs are in the indicative mood for they describe conditions that are true.

If I am king (and I am), then you are queen.

ébi ur̈e̋e̋ƣu vűűa—toáári tu ii-re̋e̋ƣu vűűa:

ébi	ur=re̋e̋ƣ-u	vűű-a	toáári	t-u	ii=re̋e̋ƣ-u	vűű-a:
if	M=king-N.s	be-IND	then	2s-N	F=king-N.s	be-IND

4.10.6.5 In other situations, the verb in the protasis is in the subjunctive mood.

If she is here now, I am glad.

ébi su ímu íðu vuue̋ȝa—toáári mu ra̋a̋du vűűa.

ébi	s-u	ímu	íðu	vuu-e̋ȝ-a	toáári	m-u	ra̋a̋d-u	vűű-a.
if	3p-N.s	now	here	be-SBJ-IND	then	1s-N	glad-N.s	be-IND

4.10.7 Independent Clauses – še̋vo fa̋so fasm̃a̋iþos

4.10.7.1 Independent clauses introduced by the postposition ša, but for.

But for the lightning we would/might not have seen the enemy.

hele̋' ša—m̃us n̨e̋rtum nĭnake̋ȝa mee:

hel-e̋-'	ša	m̃-us	n̨e̋rt-um	nĭ~na̋k-o	mee:
lightning-G.s-ELIS	but.for	1p-N	enemy-A.s	PRF~see-SBJ-IND	not

4.10.7.2 To make a wish in an independent clause.

May you be happy!

(tu) ka̋itu es-e̋ȝa:

t-u	ka̋it-u	es-e̋ȝ-a:
2s-N	happy-N.s	be-SBJ-IND

4.10.7.3 To make a polite request, instead of adding "please" to a command. This construction is always used with superiors.

Sit down!

tú se̋de

t-ú	se̋d-e
2s-V	sit-IMP

Please/Do sit down.

tú sede̋ȝa

t-ú	sed-e̋ȝ-a
2s-V	sit-SBJ-IND

4.11 Conjunctions – ƣeðsa̋m̃os

A conjunction is a word or a phrase that connects two words, sentences, phrases, or clauses together. It is an invariable particle that, with but few exceptions, ends in –i. A list of conjunctions can be found in Appendix C.

4.11.1 Coordinating conjunctions

A coordinating conjunction (pa̋ro ƣeðsa̋m̃o) joins two or more items of equal syntactic importance, such as words, main clauses, or sentences. The two equal clauses or sentences are separated by a k̬ilbőto.

The doctor arrived but it was too late.

le̋e̋gu e-tőpa. ésti kétu xa̋lo e-e̋sa:

le̋e̋g-u	e=tőp-a	ésti	kétu	xa̋l-o	e=e̋s-a
doctor-N.s	PST=arrive-IND	but	too	late-N.s	PST=be-IND

- 4.11.1.1 Sentences joined by and are juxtaposed with the co-ordinating conjunction da, and. The subject, if the same, need not be repeated.

I wrote a story and sold it.

mu ɫőmom e-ȝa̋ra da som e-fa̋a̋ra:

m-u	ɫőm-om	e=ȝa̋r-a	da	s-om	e=fa̋a̋r-a
1s-N	story-A.s	PST=write-IND	and	3p-A.s	PST=sell-IND

- 4.11.1.2 The conjunction or can be translated in several ways.
  - 4.11.1.2.1 When the conjunction or indicates an alternative, it is translated by the conjunction -m̃e attached as a postclitic to the members of the series.

I will bring an apple, (or) a pear, or a peach.

mu abe̋lomm̃e pı̋somm̃e t̨e̋nomm̃e u-tőƣa:

m-u	abe̋l-om=m̃e	pı̋s-om=m̃e	t̨e̋n-om=m̃e	u=tőƣ-a
1s-N	apple-A.s=or	pear-A.s=or	peach-A.s=or	FUT=bring-IND

- - 4.11.1.2.2 If there are only two alternatives, the preceding can be translated using either…or.

I will bring either an apple or a pear.

mu abe̋lomm̃e pı̋somm̃e u-tőƣa:

m-u	abe̋l-om=m̃e	pı̋s-om=m̃e	u=tőƣ-a
1s-N	apple-A.s=or	pear-A.s=or	FUT=bring-IND

- - 4.11.1.2.3 When or indicates a synonymous or equivalent expression, it is translated by the phrase pári, which means.

He suffers from hepatitis, or a liver disease.

nu ȝekŭṡe̋e̋m̃am pári ȝekŭda̋mom da̋ma:

n-u	ȝekŭ-ṡe̋e̋m̃-am	pári	ȝekŭ-da̋m-om	da̋ma
3-N.s	liver-inflammation-A.s	or	liver.disease-A.s	suffer.from-IND

- - 4.11.1.2.4 When or indicates uncertainty or indefiniteness, it is translated by the adverb máƣvi, maybe.

He owns two or/maybe three horses.

su d̬ő máƣvi tı̋r mőren űða:

s-u	d̬ő	máƣ=vi	tı̋r	mőr-en	űð-a
3p-N.s	two	possible-ADV	three	horse-A.p	own-IND

4.11.2 Correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions (ȝémƣeðsa̋m̃o) work in pairs to join words and groups of words of equal weight in a sentence.

Both the soldiers and the nobles will come to the dance.

vőőu sőþlus vőőu kőővus me̋bom do u-ǧe̋ma:

vőőu-Ø	sőþ-l-us	vőőu-Ø	kőőv-us	me̋b-om	do	u=ǧe̋m-a
both-ABS	war-AG-N.p	both-ABS	noble-N.p	dance-A.s	to	FUT=come-IND

4.11.3 Subordinating conjunction

A subordinating conjunction (fa̋so ƣeðsa̋m̃o) joins an independent and a dependent clause. The two clauses are separated by a period (k̬ilbőto).

Her dog died when she was young.

nu-na̋a̋ȝ' e-ne̋ṡa. méti nu be̋ku e-e̋sa:

nu=na̋a̋ȝ-e	e=ne̋ṡ-a	méti	n-u	be̋k-u	e=e̋s-a
her=dog-N.s	PST=die-IND	when	3m-N.s	young-N.s	PST=be-IND

4.12 Direct Quotations – se̋e̋iða f̨unva̋a̋as

Direct quotations are treated as independent sentences, the quotation following the verb of saying. The quotative particle (QUOT) m̃a(r) is placed before and after the quoted words. The form m̃ar is used if followed by a word beginning with a vowel and at the end of the quotation.

I said, "I will go to the store."

mu e-te̋e̋a: m̃a mu sade̋mom do u-a̋ta m̃ar:

m-u	e=te̋e̋-a	m̃a	m-u	sade̋m-om	do	u=a̋t-a	m̃ar
1s-N	PST=say-IND	QUOT	1s-N	store-N.s	to	FUT=go-IND	QUOT

I asked, "Will you go to the store?"

mu e-me̋ta: m̃a tu sade̋mom do u-a̋tame m̃ar:

m-u	e=me̋t-a	m̃a	t-u	sade̋m-om	do	u=a̋t-a=me	m̃ar
1s-N	PST=ask-IND	QUOT	2s-N	store-A.s	to	FUT=go-IND=Q	QUOT

4.13 Indirect Speech – alse̋e̋iða ȝe̋ka

In indirect speech the exact words of someone are reported by someone else. The verb in the main clause is a verb of speaking (speak, say, tell, report, answer, reply, respond), of knowing (know, understand, realize), or of perceiving (hear, feel, sense). The reported words are placed after the verb with the reported verb as a supine and its subject in the accusative case. The tense of the reported verb is the same as the verb in the direct speech.

He said, "It is raining hard." su e-te̋e̋a m̃a fééðvi sűűm̃a m̃ar: He said (that) it was raining hard. su e-te̋e̋a fééðvi sűűm̃u:

He said, "It was raining hard." nu e-te̋e̋a m̃a feéðvi e-sűűm̃a m̃ar: He said (that) it was raining hard. nu e-te̋e̋a feéðvi e-sűűm̃u:

He said, "I will go to the house." nu e-te̋e̋a m̃a mu m̃e̋e̋som do u-a̋ta m̃ar: He said (that) he would go to the house. nu e-te̋e̋a num m̃e̋e̋som do u-a̋tu:

4.14 Interrogative Sentences – méþm̃o ševm̃a̋iþos

4.14.1 A lexically marked question is one that contains an interrogative pronoun, pronominal adjective or adverb. The verb in this type of question does not take the interrogative postclitic -me. Note that an interrogative word is placed in the position of its part of speech, which is not necessarily sentence initial.

Who is coming across the field?

xu lőukom tára ǧe̋ma:

x-u	lőuk-om	tára	ǧe̋m-a
who-N.s	field-A.s	across	come-IND

When will the cobbler return those tools?

þaavta̋m̃lu xánu i-xe̋mon u-ke̋ra:

þaavta̋m̃-l-u	xánu	i=xe̋m-on	u=ke̋r-a
shoe-make-AG-N.s	when	this=tool-A.p	FUT=return-IND

4.14.2 It is possible for a lexically marked sentence to contain two or more interrogative words.

Who will help us and when (will he)?

xu xánu m̃un u-re̋e̋ga:

x-u	xánu	m̃-un	u=re̋e̋g-a
who-N.s	when	1p-A	FUT=help-IND

4.14.3 The interrogative suffix -me, added to the modal base of the verb, is used to mark questions that are not marked lexically. It implies nothing as to the answer expected. There is no alteration of the tones.

Do you drink wine?

tu m̃őinom pőőȝame:

t-u	m̃őin-om	pőőȝ-a=me
2s-N	wine-A.s	drink-IND=Q

- 4.14.3.1 In answering this type of question, "yes" and "no" are not used. Instead, the verb is repeated without a pronoun subject.

Yes, I do. pőőȝa:

No, I don't. pőőȝa ne:

- 4.14.3.2 If an affirmative answer is expected, an affirmative statement is made and is followed by the phrase ṡ̨őkame, agree-Q.

You are drinking wine, aren't you (don’t you agree)? tu m̃e̋inom pőőȝa. ṡ̨őxame:

The answer is either ṡ̨őka, "agree," or ṡ̨őka ne, "not agree."

- 4.14.3.3 If a negative answer is expected, a negative statement is made and is followed by the phrase, ṡ̨őkame, "agree-Q".

You are not drinking wine, are you (don’t you agree)? tu m̃e̋inom pőőȝa ne. ṡ̨őkame:

The answer is either ṡ̨őka, "agree," or ṡ̨őka ne, "not agree".