Verbs in Vrkhazhian

Vrkhazhian verbs are called madsiṟud (singular madsiṟu). Because Vrkhazhian is a triconsonantal root language, the fundamental part of the verb form is the transfix, a discontinuous affix inserted between a root (which is collectively called masčišu and translated as "pattern"), though they primarily only convey the grammatical voices (active, passive, causative, and reflexive). There are five tenses (past, past progressive, present, present progressive, and future) and these are indicated by prefixes attached to the base form. There is only one aspect: the perfect, called saẕkeru, which is indicated by reduplicating the entire verb. Additionally, there are also five moods (indicative, jussive, subjunctive, commissive, and propositive) and these are also indicated by prefix, placed closer to the base form than the tense prefixes. Lastly, verbs are also conjugated for number, singular and plural, with the plural indicated by the suffix -am.

When referring to a particular verb pattern, they are referred to by a derivation of the canonical (exemplary) verb d-s-ṟ (to do, to perform, to execute, to act). For example, when referring to the verb pattern of the citation form of a verb, which is the active present singular indicative, it is called dusaṟ because that is the active present singular form of the verb.

Verb Patterns

Madsiṟom Dusaṟaẇ (Dusarh verbs)

This is the simplest basic form of a verb, it gives the general idea of its root.

k-j-m (to support, to hold up)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	ʾekjammu		to support	ʾekjemmi		to be supported
Past Simple	nukjam	nukjamam	supported	nikjem	nikjemam	was supported
Past Prog.	yokjam	yokjamam	was supporting	yekjem	yekjemam	was being supported
Present Simple	kujam	kujmam	supports	kajem	kajmam	is supported
Present Prog.	hukjam	hukjamam	is supporting	hikjem	hikjemam	is being supported
Future	ʾakjam	ʾakjamam	will support	ʾikjem	ʾikjemam	will be supported

Madsiṟom Lodsaṟaẇ (Lodsarh verbs)

This stem is created by prefixing an -l- between the base form and the tense prefix. The meaning this stem imparts is reflexive. Additionally, the genitive pronouns are used to indicate the subject of a verb in a reflexive construction.

m-n-š (to write)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	lomnaššu		to write to self	lomnešši		to be written by self
Past Simple	nulmonaš	nulmonšam	wrote to self	nilmoneš	nilmonšam	was written by self
Past Prog.	yolmonaš	yolmonšam	was writing to self	yelmoneš	yelmonšam	was being written by self
Present Simple	lomnaš	lomnašam	writes to self	lomneš	lomnešam	is written by self
Present Prog.	hulmonaš	hulmonšam	is writing to self	hilmoneš	hilmonšam	is being written by self
Future	ʾalmonaš	ʾalmonšam	will write to self	ʾilmoneš	ʾilmonšam	will be written by self

Madsiṟom Dussaṟaẇ (Dussarh verbs)

This stem is created by gemminating the middle root. The meaning this stem imparts is causative.

l-n-d (to learn)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	lunnaddu		to teach	lanneddi		to be taught
Past Simple	nulunnad	nulunnadam	taught	nilanned	nilannedam	was taught
Past Prog.	yolunnad	yolunnadam	was teaching	yelanned	yelannedam	was being taught
Present Simple	lunnad	lunnadam	teaches	lanned	lannedam	is taught
Present Prog.	hulunnad	hulunnadam	is teaching	hilanned	hilannedam	is being taught
Future	ʾalunnad	ʾalunnadam	will teach	ʾilanned	ʾilannedam	will be taught

Madsiṟom Lodussaṟaẇ (Lodussarh verbs)

This stem is created by geminating the middle root and prefixing an -l-, which is dissimilated to -z- near another ⟨l⟩, between the base form and the tense prefix. The meaning this stem imparts is autocausative. In the active voice it either indicates the subject is making itself do an action, or in the case of attributive verbs (e.g. to be X), it indicates that the subject becomes the attribute. In the passive voice, it either indicates that the subject is made to do an action to itself, or it simply indicates the subject undergoes a change of state.

š-m-r (to know)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	lošummarru		to inform self	lošammerri		to become known
Past Simple	nulšommar	nulšommaram	informed self	nilšommer	nilšommeram	became known
Past Prog.	yolšommar	yolšommaram	was informing self	yelšommer	yelšommeram	was becoming known
Present Simple	lošommar	lošommaram	informs self	lošommer	lošommeram	becomes known
Present Prog.	hulšommar	hulšommaram	is informing self	hilšommer	hilšommeram	is become known
Future	ʾalšommar	ʾalšommaram	will inform self	ʾilšommer	ʾilšommeram	will become known

Other verbs

Resembling Verb

This stem is created by prefixing sṛ- to the base form and is used exclusively to derive verbs from nouns. The meaning this stem imparts roughly means "to act like", "to mimic" or "to resemble". This verb cannot take the passive voice.

hazi (man)

	Singular	Plural	Translation
Infinitive	sṛheziyyu		to resemble a man
Past Simple	nṛhezi	nṛhezyam	resembled a man
Past Prog.	yṛhezi	yṛhezyam	was resembling a man
Present Simple	sṛhezi	sṛhezyam	resembles a man
Present Prog.	hṛhezi	hṛhezyam	is resembling a man
Future	tṛhezi	tṛhezyam	will resemble a man

Adjutative verb

This stem is created by prefixing to- between the base form and the tense prefix and the meaning it imparts is adjutative, which indicates that the subject is not an agent of the action, but assists the (unstated) agent.

q-m-d (to digest)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	toqmaddu		to help digest	toqmaddi		to be helped with digesting
Past Simple	nutoqmad	nutoqmadam	helped digest	niteqmed	niteqmedam	was helped with digesting
Past Prog.	yotoqmad	yotoqmadam	was helping digest	yeteqmed	yeteqmedam	was being helped with digesting
Present Simple	toqmad	toqmadam	helps digest	teqmed	teqmedam	is helped with digesting
Present Prog.	hutoqmad	hutoqmadam	is helping digest	hiteqmed	hiteqmedam	is being helped with digesting
Future	ʾatoqmad	ʾatoqmadam	will help digest	ʾiteqmed	ʾiteqmedam	will be helped with digesting

Verb moods

Vrkhazhian has five moods, which are indicated by prefixed placed closer to the base form than the tense prefixes. These are the indicative, the jussive, the subjunctive, the commissive, and the propositive.

The indicative mood is the default mood of verbs and indicates what the speakers believes to be a statement of fact. The jussive mood is mainly used for expressing obligation or duty, but when there are no subject pronouns or nouns, it functions as the imperative mood, expressing direct commands to the adressee(s). The subjunctive mood expresses hypothetical actions or situations, primarily in that-clauses, and functions as the conditional mood in conditional sentences. Additionally, if it is neither part of a conditional sentence nor found in a that-clause, it functions as the optative mood, expressing a wish or desire. The commissive mood expresses a commitment to do something, like a promise or threat, and the propositive mood simply expresses suggestions or propositions.

s-b-b (to kill)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Jussive	wisbab	wisbabam	have to kill	wisbeb	wisbebam	have to be killed
Subjunctive	bisbab	bisbabam	may kill	bisbeb	bisbebam	may be killed
Commissive	ḵapsubab	ḵapsubbam	shall kill	ḵepsabeb	ḵepsabbam	shall be killed
Propositive	gimsubab	gimsubbam	should kill	gimsabeb	gimsabbam	should be killed

Weak Verbs

Verbs are considered weak if the root contains a weak radical, which are called called haẏwud. These weak radicals are ⟨y⟩, ⟨w⟩, and ⟨h⟩. Weak verbs have different morphophonological properties depending on the position of the radical with respect to the other radicals. Verbs where the first radical is weak are called madsiṟud ʾeššamud ("strengthened verbs") because the consonants ⟨y⟩ and ⟨w⟩ having the phonemic value of /j w/ are fortified to [ʝ β], except if there is an /a/ preceding them, where they become non-syllabic vowels. However, the consonant ⟨h⟩ is unaffected. Verbs where the second radical is weak are called madsiṟud ʾemḵapud ("hollow verbs") because the weak consonants are converted to their vocalic counterparts: ⟨y w⟩ become /i u/ with ⟨h⟩ unaffected. An exception to this is in the case of gemination whereby they are fortified just like strengthened verbs. Lastly, verbs where the third radical is weak are called madsiṟud ʾeṗšašud ("cut verbs") because, like hollow verbs, the weak consonants are converted to their vocalic counterparts, thus making the verb end in a vowel.

Strengthened Verbs

w-d-d (to cover)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	ʾewdaddu		to cover	ʾewdeddi		to be covered
Past Simple	nuwdad	nuwdadam	covered	niwded	niwdedam	was covered
Past Prog.	yowdad	yowdadam	was covering	yewded	yewdedam	was being covered
Present Simple	wudad	wuddam	cover	waded	waddam	is supported
Present Prog.	huwdad	huwdadam	is covering	hiwded	hiwdedam	is being covered
Future	ʾaẇdad	ʾaẇdadam	will cover	ʾiwded	ʾiwdedam	will be covered

Hollow Verbs

t-y-l (to destroy)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	ʾetyallu		to destroy	ʾetyelli		to be destroyed
Past Simple	nutil	nutilam	destroyed	nitil	nitilam	was destroyed
Past Prog.	yotil	yotilam	was destroying	yetil	yetilam	was being destroyed
Present Simple	til	tilam	destroy	til	tilam	is destroyed
Present Prog.	hutil	hutilam	is destroying	hitil	hitilam	is being destroyed
Future	ʾatil	ʾatilam	will destroy	ʾitil	ʾitilam	will be destroyed

Cut Verbs

n-š-y (to want, to desire)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	ʾenšayyu		to destroy	ʾenšeyyi		to be destroyed
Past Simple	nunši	nunšayam	destroyed	ninši	ninšeyam	was destroyed
Past Prog.	yonši	yonšayam	was destroying	yenši	yenšeyam	was being destroyed
Present Simple	nuši	nušyam	destroy	naši	našyam	is destroyed
Present Prog.	hunši	hunšayam	is destroying	hinši	hinšeyam	is being destroyed
Future	ʾanši	ʾanšayam	will destroy	ʾinši	ʾinšeyam	will be destroyed

Vrkhazhian as a secundative language

Unlike most languages, Vrkhazhian has a secundative alignment with regards to ditransitive verbs. This means that the recipient of a verb is treated like the patient of a transitive verb rather than the theme. The theme is indicated with the clitic sa-, which changes to su- before bilabial consonants and s- before a glottal stop, which is phonetically omitted word-initially.

Below is an example, in the active voice:

ṛ-ʾAlkada ṛ-tuhazi pulal sa-bedu.

ṛ-ʾAlkada	ṛ-tuhazi	pulal	sa-bedu
DEF-soldier-NOM.FEM.SG	DEF-man-ACC.MASC.SG	give\ACT.PRES.SG	with=book-NEUT.SG

"The guard gives the man [with] a book."

In the passive voice, the recipient is promoted to subject, rather than the theme:

Palel sa-bedu ṛ-hazi ʾim ṛ-ʾalkada.

Palel	sa-bedu	ṛ-hazi	ʾim	ṛ-ʾalkada
give\PASS.PRES.SG	with=book-NEUT.SG	DEF-man-NOM.MASC.SG	by	DEF-soldier-FEM.SG

"The man is given [with] a book by the guard."