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User:Masako/sandbox

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Verbal Paradigm
1st sing 2nd sing 3rd sing 1st plu 2nd plu 3rd plu
1st sing - na'eta na'eha - na'etam na'ekam
2nd sing ta'ena - ta'eha ta'enam - ta'ekam
3rd sing ha'ena ha'eta - ha'enam ha'etam ha'ekam
1st plu - nameta nameha - nametam namekam
2nd plu tamena - tameha tamenam - tamekam
3rd plu kamena kameta kameha kamenam kametam -
Grammatical form Ido English
Singular noun -o (libro) book
Plural noun -i (libri) books
Adjective -a (varma) warm
Adverb -e (varme) warmly
Present tense infinitive -ar (irar) to be going to go
Past tense infinitive -ir (irir) to have gone
Future tense infinitive -or (iror) to be going to go
Present -as (iras) go, goes
Past -is (iris) went
Future -os (iros) will go
Imperative -ez (irez) go!
Conditional -us (irus) would go


Phonology

consonants

  • Plosives
p - [p~b] | t - [t~d] | k - [k~g] | ' - [?]
  • Nasals
m - [m] | n - [n] | ny - [J]
  • Fricatives
s - [s~S] | h - [h~h\]
  • Africates
ts - [ts~tS] | tl - [tK]
  • Approximants
u - [w] | l - [l] | y - [j]

vowels

  • a - /a~a:/ | e - /e~e:/ | i - /i~i:/ | o - /o~o:/ | u - /u~u:/

diphthongs

  • ya - /ja:/ | ye - /je:/ | yo - /jo:/ | ua - /wa:/ | ue - /we:/
  • ai - /aI:/ | ao - /aU:/ | uai - /waI:/ | yao - /jaU:/

phonotactics

  • Kala allows only a single consonant at the start or end of a syllable (the exception being prenasalization), and up to two consonants word medially across a syllable boundary.
l cannot appear as an onset, the glottal stop, ' , only appears between vowels.

syllable structure

  • (N)(CV)(k, m, n)
Prenasalization primarily occurs with k, t and p. (See also: Moya)

syllable stress

  • Kala stress is penultimate; that is, the next-to-last syllable of the word is stressed.

Grammar

word order

  • The usual, declarative formal word order is subject noun phrase - (object noun phrase) - verb phrase.
Example : He/She is preparing food.
ha ina yaso
3sg food prepare
  • The "indirect object" exists only in the form of a prepositional phrase, and follows the object noun phrase.
Example : The woman gives the house to me.
naka ka'e na ke tsaka yeta
woman to 1S the house give
  • This construction changes when both the subject (agent) and (indirect)/object (patient) are personal pronouns. In this case, the preposition/al (phrase) is unnecessary.
Example : She gives the house to me.
ha'ena ke tsaka yeta
3sg-TR-part-1sg a house give
  • A chart of the agent-patient transitivity constructions;
A-P construction
1st sing 2nd sing 3rd sing 1st plu 2nd plu 3rd plu
1st sing - na'eta na'eha - na'etam na'ekam
2nd sing ta'ena - ta'eha ta'enam - ta'ekam
3rd sing ha'ena ha'eta - ha'enam ha'etam ha'ekam
1st plu - nameta nameha - nametam namekam
2nd plu tamena - tameha tamenam - tamekam
3rd plu kamena kameta kameha kamenam kametam -

verbs

tense

  • The present tense is indicated by the basic form.
ha apua
3SG sing
He/She sings.
  • The simple past tense is indicated by the suffix -ye.
ha apuaye
3SG sing-PAST
He/She sang.
  • The simple future tense is indicated by the suffix -tli.
ha apuatli
3SG sing-FUT
He/She will sing.
  • The tense may be left out if it is clearly indicated by another word in the same sentence, or when telling a story (the "historical" tense).
ha yomatli apua
3SG day-FUT sing
He/She will sing tomorrow.
ha semaye apua
3SG week-PAST sing
He/She sang last week.

mood

  • Moods are indicated by affixes appended to verbs in all tenses.
  • The negative mood is indicated by the suffix -k.
kam inak
3PL eat-NEG
They are not eating. / They do not eat.
  • The volitive mood is indicated by the suffix -ue (from ueha - to want, desire).
nam tsomaueye
1PL smoke-VOL-PAST
We wanted to smoke.
  • The necessitative mood is indicated by the suffix -he (from heta - to need, require).
ta simahetlik
2S sit-NEC-FUT-NEG
You will not need to sit.
  • The abilitative mood is indicated by the suffix -pa (from pala - to be able).
na mokupa
1S sleep-ABIL
I can sleep. / I am able to sleep.

nouns

affect/degree

  • The diminutive is formed with -hi, and the augmentative with -ha. These are respectively realized as -ki and -ka when attached to a word that has a final syllable containing h or y.
Example : ina - food, meal | inahi - snack, morsel | inaha - feast, banquet
Example : tsaka - house, home, dwelling | tsakahi - shack, hut, cabin | tsakaha - palace, mansion
  • These are also used to differentiate hue, or shade.
Example : yanahi - light yellow, kuyaha - dark green
  • In Kala the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective are merged into a single form, the elative. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
Example : tahaka - bigger/biggest | tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka - His house is bigger than mine.
Example : yanaha - more yellow/most yellow | ke huam tayo yanaha - Your flowers are the most yellow.

plurals

  • Concrete nouns are pluralized by suffixing -m.
Examples : kono - stone > konom - stones | naka - woman > nakam - women
  • When the last syllable of a word contains an m, the plural is marked by reduplicating the final vowel.
Examples : kama - village > kama'a - villages | yama - mountain > yama'a - mountains
  • Collective (plural) nouns are marked by prefixing tli-.
Examples : tsaka - house > tlitsaka - neighborhood | yama - mountain > tliyama - mountain range
  • Nouns need not be marked plural if a number is used to show quantity.
Example : sahi - color > sahim - colors > sahi ya'o - five color(s)
  • Adjectives do not show plural agreement. However, when an adjective is used nominally, it can be pluralized.
Example : nyeli - pink > nyelim - (the) pink (ones)

gender

  • In general, nouns do not indicate their gender. To distinguish the sexes, one can use the adjectival endings -ta and -na.
Example : nikata "a male dog", nikana "a female dog".

articles

  • There is only one article in Kala, ke. It is used primarily as a "noun marker".
  • It is ambi-definite, meaning it can be either definite or indefinite. The distinction is made through context.
Example : kama "village", ke kama "the/a village", ke kama'a "the villages"
Example : inahi "snack", ke inahi "the/a snack", ke inahim "the snacks"

questions

  • When asking questions in Kala, the idea, or concept, is the subject, and the entire construction is followed by the interrogative particle ka.
  • ama...ka - when, lit: time...INT
  • ko...ka - who, lit: person [Agentive]...INT
  • koyo...ka - whose, lit: person-POSS...INT
  • nye...ka - why, lit: reason...INT
  • no...ka - what, lit: thing [Instrument]...INT
  • mo...ka - where, lit: place...INT
  • to...ka - how, what manner, lit: manner/method...INT
  • ku / o...ka - how much/many, lit: number/amount...INT

examples

  • ama nam yalatli ka
time 1PL go-FUT INT
When will we go?
  • ko ke tlaka ka
person that man INT
Who is that man?
  • nye kam hina ka
reason 3PL here INT
Why are they here?
  • no a ka / itla ka
thing be INT / this INT
What is this?
  • koyo kama ke yama hina ka
person-POSS village the mountain near INT
Whose village is near the mountain?
  • mo satila nayo ka
place sandwich 1SG-POSS INT
Where is my sandwich?
  • to nam yalatli ka
manner 1PL travel-FUT INT
How will we travel?
  • ku ekam yetaye ka
amount TR-3PL give-PAST INT
How many were they given?

pronouns

Nominative Accusative Possessive Reflexive Reciprocal
1st sing na ena nayo na'i
2nd sing ta eta tayo ta'i
3rd sing ha eha hayo ha'i
1st plu nam enam namyo nami nanku
1st plu (EXCL) na'am ena'am na'amyo na'ami na'anku
2nd plu tam etam tamyo tami tanku
3rd plu kam ekam kamyo kami kanku

examples

  • ina namyo
food 1PL-POSS
Our food.
  • kami itsa
3PL-REFL love
They love themselves.
  • tanku moto ka
2PL-RECP remember INT
Do you remember each other?
  • eha unyatlik
ACC-3SG understand-FUT-NEG
He/She will not be understood.

Article 1, UDHR

Spelling and pronunciation

     Alphabets
     Capital letters
     Letter names
     Vowels
     Diphthongs
     Consonants
     Non-LFN letters
     Stress
     Phonotactics

Sentences

Nouns

     Plural
     Countable and uncountable nouns
     Gender
     Noun phrases
     Apposition

Determiners

     Predeterminers
     Articles
     Demonstratives
     Interrogatives
     Selection determiners
     Possessives
     Quantifiers
     Similarity determiners
     Order of determiners

Pronouns

     Personal pronouns
     Determiner pronouns
     Interrogative and relative pronouns
     Other pronouns
     Pronoun phrases

Adjectives

Adverbs

     Position
     Comparison
     Primary adverbs
     Quantifier adverbs
     Interrogative and relative adverbs

Verbs

     Tense
     Imperative
     Negation
     Participles
     Transitivity
     Verbs without subjects
     Verb chains
     Verbs as nouns

Prepositions

Conjunctions

Questions

Clauses

     Relative clauses
     Adverbial clauses
     Noun clauses
     Coordinated clauses

Numbers

     Cardinal numbers
     Thousands of millions
     Ordinal numbers
     Fractions
     Multiples
     Arithmetic
     Measurements

Word formation

     Prefixes
     Suffixes
     Suffix forming verbs
     Suffixes forming adjectives
     Suffixes forming nouns
     Less productive suffixes
     Technical affixes
     Compound nouns

Abbreviations

Punctuation

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