Chinese sound correspondences

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This chart strives to document all regular sound correspondences between:

  • Middle Chinese and major modern Chinese languages
  • Middle Chinese and loans in Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese

This chart uses the following default Romanizations:

  • Baxter's orthography, for Middle Chinese
  • Hanyu Pinyin, for Mandarin (Beijing)
  • Jyutping, for Cantonese
  • Pinfa, for Hakka
  • Wugniu, for Shanghainese
  • Pre-1945 kana (歴史的仮名遣い) Romanized in faux-Wāpuro, for Japanese
  • Revised Romanization, for Modern Korean

Abbreviations that are used throughout:

Onset classes:

  • P = MC labials (p,ph,b,m)
  • F = LMC labiodentals (p,ph,b,m)
  • T = MC dental plosives and nasals (t,th,d,n)
  • TR = MC retroflex plosives (tr,trh,dr), excluding nr
  • S = MC dental sibilants (ts,tsh,dz,s,z)
  • SR = MC retroflex sibilants (tsr,tsrh,dzr,sr)
  • SY = MC palatal sibilants (tsy,tsyh,dzy,sy,zy) and ny
  • K = MC velars and laryngeals (k,kh,g,ŋ,x,h,ʔ,y,hj)

Readings:

  • COL = colloquial reading (白讀)
  • LIT = literary reading (文讀)
  • See the explanation on Wikipedia

Tones:

  • 1 = Ping tone (平聲)
  • 2 or X = Shang tone (上聲)
  • 3 or H = Qu tone (去聲)
  • 4 = Ru tone (入聲)

Chongniu (重紐) classes:

  • CN-A = chongniu class A
  • CN-B = chongniu class B
  • See the rimes section for further information

Onsets

The onsets of Middle Chinese

Each onset is given with a traditional label (i.e. an exemplary character that uses the onset) as well as Baxter's notation for the onset. The actual phonetic values are subject to debate.

幫 p 滂 ph 並 b 明 m
端 t 透 th 定 d 泥 n 來 l
知 tr 徹 trh 澄 dr 娘 nr
精 ts 清 tsh 從 dz 心 s 邪 z
莊 tsr 初 tsrh 崇 dzr 生 sr （俟 zr)
章 tsy 昌 tsyh 常 dzy 日 ny 書 sy 船 zy
見 k 溪 kh 群 g 疑 ng
影 ʔ 以 y 曉 x 匣 h

(俟 zr is a controversial reconstructed phoneme. It makes the chart more symmetrical, but if it existed it was marginal at best.)

Traditional Chinese philology conflated some onsets and split others, due to later sound changes. The traditional analysis, though inaccurate as a description of (Early) MC, is still influential, and also useful in analyzing later sound changes, so the differences between the traditional analysis and the reconstruction given above are listed here, as follows:

First, the tsr- and tsy- rows are traditionally conflated as follows:

Traditional labels 照 穿 牀 審 禪
Retroflexes 莊 tsr 初 tsrh 崇 dzr 生 sr （俟 zr)
Palatals 章 tsy 昌 tsyh 常 dzy 書 sy 船 zy

Second, the p- row is split as follows:

Early MC 幫 p 滂 ph 並 b 明 m
Later labials 幫 滂 並 明
Later labiodentals 非 敷 奉 微

Though this split is late/post-MC, it is reflected in most Chinese varieties, as well as in Vietnamese, as an opposition between bilabials and labiodentals, and so the split is included in the onsets chart below. The conditions for the labiodentals are:

  1. The third-division (三等) and hekou (合口) rimes of 虞 ju, 微 jwɨj, 廢 jwojH, 凡 jom, 元 jwon, 文 jun, 陽 jwang, as well as
  2. (Excluding the onset 明 m) The third-division rimes of 東 juwng, 鍾 jowng, 尤 juw

(See the rimes section for an explanation of rime categories)

Third, the traditional onset category 喻 has been reanalyzed as a conflation of two distinct MC onsets: 云 and 以. Furthermore, 云 is now often analyzed as merely an allophone of 匣 h before third-division rimes (匣 h does not otherwise appear before third-division rimes). Baxter's orthography reflects this analysis: 云 and 匣 are both written as "h" while 以 is written as "y". The onset chart here goes for maximum separation: 匣, 云 and 以 each gets its own separate row.

Onset correspondences (general)

Though we have tried our best, a chart like the following is prone to clutter if we attempted to include every single variation. Thus, some details are omitted from the main chart. They are instead explained in notes that follow the main chart.

Onset Middle Chinese Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese
Karlgren[1] Baxter[2] IPA[3] Go-On Kan-On Middle*[4] Modern
幫 p p [p] b [p]
but p [pʰ]
(迫畔叛佩僕
譜圃瀑蹼)
and m [m] (秘泌) 		b [p]
but p [pʰ]
(編遍佩譜圃豹鄙謗)
and m [m] (剝) 		b [p] p [p] h [h] h [h] 彆 ㅂ [p] b [p]

p [pʰ] /_[a,je,jo,il,
ip,ɛŋ,um,jʌn,jʌm]

b [ɓ]

t [t] (CN-A)

滂 p' ph [pʰ] p [pʰ]
but b [p] (玻繽怖) 		p [pʰ]
but b [p] (玻繽品怖坡) 		p [pʰ] ph [pʰ] h [h] h [h] 漂 ㅍ [pʰ] b [p]

p [pʰ] /_[a,je,o,jo,il,
ɛŋ,um,jʌn,jʌk,jʌm]

ph [f]

th [tʰ] (CN-A)

並 b' b [b] p [pʰ] /_1

b [p] /_234
but p [pʰ] (佩)

p [pʰ] /_1,
COL2
(棒婢被蚌抱倍蓓)

b [p] /_34,LIT2
but p [pʰ] (佩)

p [pʰ] b [b] b [b] h [h] 步 ㅃ [p'] b [p]

p [pʰ] /_[a,je,jo,il,ɛŋ]

b [ɓ]

th [tʰ] (CN-A)

明 m m [m] m [m]
but w [w] (戊) 		m [m] m [m] m [m] m [m] b [b]

m [m]
(Geng She)

彌 ㅁ [m] m [m] m [m]

d [z ~ j] (CN-A)

非 p p [f] f [f] f [f] f [f] f [f] h [h] h [h] 彆 ㅂ [p] b [p]

p [pʰ] /_[je,uŋ]

ph [f]
敷 p' ph [fʰ] f [f]
but p [pʰ] (捧) 		f [f]
but p [pʰ] (捧) 		f [f] f [f] h [h] h [h] 漂 ㅍ [pʰ] b [p]

p [pʰ] /_[je,uŋ]

ph [f]
奉 b' b [v] f [f] f [f] f [f]

some p [pʰ]

v [v] b [b] h [h] 步 ㅃ [p'] b [p]
but p [pʰ] (乏吠) 		ph [f]
微 m m [ɱ] w [w]
but m [m] (曼) 		m [m] v [v]

some m [m]

LIT: v [v]

COL: m [m]

m [m] b [b] 彌 ㅁ [m] m [m] v [v]
端 t t [t] d [t]
but n [n] (鳥) 		d [t]
but t [tʰ] (禱)
and n [n] (鳥) 		d [t] t [t] t [t] t [t] 斗 ㄷ [t] d [t]
(palatalized in DIV4) 		đ [ɗ]
透 t' th [tʰ] t [tʰ] t [tʰ] t [tʰ] th [tʰ] t [t] t [t] 呑 ㅌ [tʰ] t [tʰ]

some d [t]
(palatalized in DIV4)

th [tʰ]
定 d' d [d] t [tʰ] /_1
but d [t] (鼕)

d [t] /_234
but t [tʰ]
(挺艇鋌特突
沓蹋袒慟)

t [tʰ] /_1,
COL2
(盾挺艇鋌怠殆肚斷)
but d [t] (鼕)

d [t] /_34,LIT2
but t [tʰ] (袒)

t [tʰ] d [d] d [d] t [t] 覃 ㄸ [t'] d [t]

some t [tʰ]
(palatalized in DIV4)

đ [ɗ]
泥 n n [n] n [n] n [n] n [n] n [n] n [n] d [d]
but n [n]
(寧薴) 		那 ㄴ [n] n [n] n [n]
來 l l [l] l [l]
but n [n] (弄) 		l [l]
but d [t] (隸) 		l [l] l [l] r [ɺ] r [ɺ] 閭 ㄹ [ɾ] r [ɾ] l [l]
知 t̂ tr [ʈ] zh [tʂ]
but ch [tʂʰ] (輟)
and d [t] (爹) 		z [ts]
but c [tsʰ] (貯)
and d [t] (涿啄琢爹) 		z [ts] ts [ts] t [t] t [t] 斗 ㄷ [t] d [tɕ] (/_[i,j])

t [tʰ] /_æwk
t [tɕʰ] (DIV4)

tr [ʈ]
徹 t̂' trh [ʈʰ] ch [tʂʰ]
but zh [tʂ] (祉) 		c [tsʰ]
but z [ts] (祉) 		c [tsʰ] tsh [tsʰ] t [t] t [t] 呑 ㅌ [tʰ] t [tɕʰ] (/_[i,j])

some d [tɕ]
t [tʰ] (DIV2)

s [ʂ]
澄 d̂' dr [ɖʰ] ch [tʂʰ] /_1

zh [tʂ] /_234
but z [ts] (擇澤)
and ch [tʂʰ] (澈)
and d [t] (瞪)

c [tsʰ] /_1,
COL2 (峙重柱)

z [ts] /_34,LIT2
but c [tsʰ] (澈)
and d [t] (秩)

c [tsʰ] z [z] d [d] t [t] 覃 ㄸ [t'] d [tɕ] (/_[i,j])

some t [tɕʰ]
d [t] /_a#
t [tʰ] /_æk,æwk

tr [ʈ]
娘 n nr [ɳ] n [n]
but w [w] (諉) 		n [n]
but w [w] (諉)
and j [j] (釀) 		n [n]
but n [n̩] (女) 		gn [ȵ] n [n] d [d]
but n [n]
(檸獰) 		那 ㄴ [n] n [n] n [n]
精 ts ts [ts] z [ts]
but c [tsʰ] (雀挫) 		z [ts]
but c [tsʰ] (挫) 		z [ts] ts [ts] s [s] s [s] 即 ㅈ [ts] j [tɕ] t [t]
清 ts' tsh [tsʰ] c [tsʰ]
but z [ts] (緝竣) 		c [tsʰ]
but z [ts] (竣) 		c [tsʰ] tsh [tsʰ] s [s] s [s] 侵 ㅊ [tsʰ] ch [tɕʰ] th [tʰ]
從 dz' dz [dz] c [tsʰ] /_1
but d [t] (蹲)

z [ts] /_234
but c [tsʰ] (攢萃悴瘁)

c [tsʰ] /_1,
COL2 (坐)

z [ts] /_34,LIT2
but c [tsʰ] (攢)
and s [s] (萃悴瘁)

c [tsʰ] z [z] z [z] s [s] 慈 ㅉ [ts'] j [tɕ]

ch [tɕʰ]

t [t]
心 s s [s] s [s]
but sh [ʂ] (珊姍)
and c [tsʰ] (賜棲鞘粹)
and z [ts] (燥噪峻) 		s [s]
but c [tsʰ]
(棲賽塞速賜肖鞘燥噪)
and z [ts] (峻) 		s [s] s [s] s [s] s [s] 戍 ㅅ [s] s [s] t [t]
邪 z z [z] s [s]
but ∅ (嶼)
and c [tsʰ] in
MC zi1 (詞祠辭)
and MC zjuw1 (囚) 		c [tsʰ] /_1,
COL2 (似)

z [ts] /_34,LIT2
but s [s]
(旋羨遂隧殉緒)

s [s] z [z] z [z] s [s] 邪 ㅆ [s'] s [s] t [t]
照莊 tṣ tsr [tʂ] zh [tʂ]
but z [ts]
(阻俎詛鄒責仄) 		z [ts] z [ts] ts [ts] s [s] s [s] 即 ㅈ [ts] j [tɕ] tr [ʈ]
穿初 tṣ' tsrh [tʂʰ] ch [tʂʰ]
but c [tsʰ]
(策冊測惻廁篡)
and zh [tʂ] (錚) 		c [tsʰ]
but z [ts] (錚)
and s [s] (篡) 		c [tsʰ] tsh [tsʰ] s [s] s [s] 侵 ㅊ [tsʰ] ch [tɕʰ] s [ʂ]
床崇 dẓ' dzr [dʐʰ] ch [tʂʰ] /_1
but c [ts] (岑)

zh [tʂ] /_234
but sh [ʂ] (士事柿)

c [tsʰ] /_1,
COL2 (柿)
but s [s] (潺愁崇)

z [ts] /_34,LIT2
but s [s] (士事)

c [tsʰ] z [z] z [z] s [s] 慈 ㅉ [ts'] s [s]

ch [tɕʰ]
j [tɕ]

s [ʂ]
審生 ṣ sr [ʂ] sh [ʂ]
but ch [tʂʰ] (產)
and s [s]

(灑澀縮瑟色嗇森)

s [s]
but c [tsʰ] (產刷杉) 		s [s] s [s] s [s] s [s] 戍 ㅅ [s] s [s]
but ss [s'] (雙) 		s [ʂ]
禪俟 ź zr [ʐ] s [s] z [ts] s [s] z [z] z [z] s [s] 邪 ㅆ [s'] s [s] th [tʰ]
照章 tś tsy [tɕ] zh [tʂ]
but ch [tʂʰ] (捶)
and d [t] (盹) 		z [ts]
but c [tsʰ] (捶診疹)
and d [t] (盹) 		z [ts] ts [ts] s [s] s [s] 即 ㅈ [ts] j [tɕ] ch [c]
穿昌 tś' tsyh [tɕʰ] ch [tʂʰ]
but sh [ʂ] (樞瀋) 		c [tsʰ]
but s [s] (樞瀋) 		c [tsʰ] tsʰ [tsh] s [s] s [s] 侵 ㅊ [tsʰ] ch [tɕʰ] x [s]
床船 dź' zy [ʑ] sh [ʂ] /_234

_1:
ch [tʂʰ] (船乘唇)
sh [ʂ] (神繩蛇)

s [s] s [s] z [z] z [z] s [s] 慈 ㅉ [ts'] s [s] th [tʰ]
審書 ś sy [ɕ] sh [ʂ]
but ch [tʂʰ] (弛翅舂) 		s [s]
but c [tsʰ]
(始弛矢設束翅奢)
and z [ts] (舂) 		s [s] s [s] s [s] s [s] 戍 ㅅ [s] s [s] th [tʰ]
禪常 ź dzy [dʑ] sh [ʂ] /_234
but r [ɻ] (瑞)

_1:
ch [tʂʰ] (most)
sh [ʂ]
(時匙誰韶殊裳)

s [s]
but c [tsʰ] (恃) 		s [s] z [z] z [z] s [s] 邪 ㅆ [s'] s [s]
j [tɕ]
ch [tɕʰ]
but ss [s'] (氏) 		th [tʰ]
日 ńź ny [ȵ] r [ɻ]

er [aɚ] <
MC nye (兒爾邇) &
MC nyij (二貳) &
MC nyi (而耳餌)

j [j] ng [ŋ]

some y [j]

z [z]

gn [ȵ] /_[i,y]

n [n] z [z] 穰 ㅿ [z] j [j]

∅ /_[i]

nh [ɲ]
見 k k [k] g [k]
but k [kʰ]

(扛礦昆柯膾愧榷)
and h [x] (梟懈偕)
and w [w] (蝸)

g [k] (kaikou)

gw [kʷ] (hekou)
but k(w) [kʰ(ʷ)]
(概溉丐給汲級冀規會
膾劊愧拘駒溝箍礦羯
竭訣決抉蹶厥襟昆)
and h [h] (梟懈)
and w [w] (蝸媧)
and ∅ (柯)

g [k] k [k] k [k] k [k] 君 ㄱ [k] g [k] c/k/q(u) [k]

gi [z ~ j]
(DIV2; kaikou)

溪 k' kh [kʰ] k [kʰ]
but h [x]
(隙恢詼墟溪) 		h [h] (kaikou)
some k [kʰ]

kw [kʰʷ] (hekou)
f [f] /_j,n,t
(DIV1,2; hekou)
but p [pʰ] (棵)
and gw [kʷ] (隙)

k [kʰ] kh [kʰ] k [k] k [k] 快 ㅋ [kʰ] g [k]
but kk [k'] (喫) 		kh [x]
群 g' g [g] k [kʰ] /_1
but g [k] (畿鯨)

g [k] /_234
but k [kʰ] (匱饋)

k(w) [kʰ(ʷ)] /_1,
COL2 (近臼舅菌)
but g [k] (畿)

g(w) [k(ʷ)] /_34,LIT2
but k(w) [kʰ(ʷ)] (匱及)

k [kʰ] g [g] g [ɡ] k [k] 虯 ㄲ [k'] g [k] c/k/q(u) [k]
疑 ng ng [ŋ] null
but n [n]
(擬孽逆虐凝牛倪霓)
and g [k] (疙圪岌)
and k [kʰ] (聵)
and r [ɻ] (阮) 		ng [ŋ]

j [j] for most DIV3,4
ng [ŋ̩] < MC ngu
but k [kʰ] (岌聵)
and w [w] (鮠玩頑)

ng [ŋ]

also n [n̩] <
MC ngu,ngjo

ng [ŋ]

some gh [ɦ]

g [ɡ] g [ɡ] 業 ㆁ [ŋ] ∅ ng/ngh [ŋ]

nh [ɲ]
(DIV2; kaikou)

影 ' ʔ [ʔ] null
but g [k] (娟)
and h [x] (穢) 		∅ (DIV1,2; kaikou)
j [j] (DIV3,4; kaikou)

w [w] (hekou)
but g [k] (娟)
and n [n] (凹)

∅ (kaikou)

v [v] (hekou)

∅ ∅ ∅ 挹 ㆆ [ʔ] ∅ ∅ [ʔ]

nh [ɲ] (CN-A)

曉 x x [h] h [x]
but k [kʰ] (況迄訖) 		h [h] (kaikou)

f [f] (hekou)
but k(w) [kʰ(ʷ)] (吸賄)
and gw [kʷ] (轟)
and ng [ŋ] (迄訖)
and j [j] (欣)

h [h] (kaikou)

f [f] (hekou)

h [h] k [k] k [k] 虛 ㅎ [h] h [h] h [h]
匣 ɣ h [ɦ] h [x]
but g [k] (迥)
and k [kʰ] (潰洽)
and ∅ (完皖莞肴螢熒) 		h [h] (kaikou)

w [w] (hekou)
j [j] /_m,n,ng (DIV4)
but gw [kʷ] (迥)
and k(ʷ) [kʰ(ʷ)] (潰繪攜)
and ng [ŋ] (肴)

h [h] (kaikou)

f [f] (hekou)

gh [ɦ] g [ɡ] k [k] 洪 ㆅ [h'] h [h] h [h]
but th [tʰ] (話)
喻云 j hj [ɦj] null
but h [x] (彙彗雄熊) 		j [j] (kaikou)
but h [h] (雄熊)

w [w] (hekou)
j [j] /_wen,won,wot

y [j]

v /_j,ŋ,k
(hekou)

gh [ɦ] ∅ ∅ 欲 ㅇ [∅]

業 ㆁ [ŋ] (DIV3)

∅ h [h] (kaikou)

v [v] (hekou)

喻以 ∅ y [j] null
but g [k] (捐)
and k [kʰ] (鉛) 		j [j]

w [w] /_wij,win,wit
but g [k] (捐)

y [j]

v /_wij

gh [ɦ] ∅ ∅ 欲 ㅇ [∅]

業 ㆁ [ŋ] (DIV3)

∅ d [z ~ j]
but q(u) [k] (捐)

Notes

Mandarin — Beijing

This following major shift is completely omitted from the above chart:

z [ts] and g [k] > j [tɕ] / _i [i], ü [y]
c [tsʰ] k [kʰ] q [tɕʰ]
s [s] h [x] x [ɕ]

Furthermore, the modern semivowels are analyzed as epenthetic consonants occuring when the onset is null:

i [i] > yi [ji] / #_#
ü [y] yu [ɥy]
u [u] wu [wu]
i [i] y [j] #_V
ü [y] yu [ɥ]
u [u] w [w ~ ʋ] #_V except #_o#
w [w] #_o#

For example, MC onset 以 y tends to correspond to modern y [j] or yu [ɥ], but the correspondence chart gives the modern reflex of 以 y as null; y [j] or yu [ɥ] are then synchronically produced using this sound change. This also correctly predicts situations where MC 以 y does not give modern y [j] or yu [ɥ], e.g. 惟 ywij > wéi [ʋei], where y > null and [ʋ] is produced by the Mandarin rime uei [uei], the regular descendent of MC -wij.

Yue — Canton

The MC initials 見溪群曉匣 (k kh g x h) are each given two modern reflexes, a non-labialized reflex and a labialized one. Which one occurs depends on the rime. The rime correspondence tables below specify when labialization occurs with the symbol "w [ʷ]" in the Cantonese columns. (Furthermore, unless otherwise noted, where a rime correspondence is denoted with "w [ʷ]", the labialization is neutralized after MC onset ng = Cantonese onset ng [ŋ].) Furthermore, labialization always occurs when the Cantonese rime is one of u ui un ut [uː uːi uːn uːt] (but not ung uk [ʊŋ ʊk])

Up until the early 20th century, Cantonese had alveolo-palatal sibilants [tɕ tɕʰ ɕ] corresponding to Middle Chinese retroflex and palatal onsets, but these have since merged into the plain alveolar sibilants /ts tsʰ s/. As a corollary, /ts tsʰ s/ may be pronounced palatalized, especially before the front high vowels.

The following changes, disapproved of by prescriptivists, are ongoing:

  • n [n] > l [l] (onset)
  • ng [ŋ], ∅ > [ŋ ~ ∅] (onset)
  • gw kw [kʷ kʰʷ] > g k [k kʰ] / _ong,ok [ɔːŋ ɔːk]
  • ng k [ŋ k] > n t [n t] (coda)
  • ng [ŋ̩] > m [m̩] (syllabic)

Hakka — Moiyan

This following shift is omitted from the above chart:

z [ts] > j [tɕ] / _i [i]
c [tsʰ] q [tɕʰ]
s [s] x [ɕ]

The following sound changes are not reflected in Pinfa nor in the chart:

  • g k h ng [k kʰ h ŋ] > [c cʰ ç ȵ] / _i [i]

The semivowel y [j] is normally treated as a null consonant followed by i [i], just like in Mandarin. However, its consonantal value is overtly displayed in the onset chart due to how consistently it appears with the corresponding historical onsets.

Wu — Shanghai

This following shift is omitted from the above chart:

ts [ts] and k [k] > c [tɕ] / _i [i,y]
tsh [tsʰ] kh [kʰ] ch [tɕʰ]
s [s] h [h] sh [ɕ]
n [n] ng [ŋ] gn [ȵ]
g [g] j [dʑ]
z [z] zh [ʑ]

One exception is gn [ȵ] as a consistent outcome of Middle Chinese onsets 娘 nr and 日 ny.

Also note that for onset gh [ɦ], Wugniu denotes "ghi ghu" as "y w" when preceding a vowel, and as "yi wu" otherwise. Likewise, the syllables [ɦm ɦŋ] are denoted as "m ng".

Japanese

The following consonants have allophones before i [i], y [j] and u [u]. (The influx of Western borrowings are changing many of these allophones into phonemes in their own right, but for the purposes of analyzing Chinese borrowings, they can be treated as allophones.)

C > /i [i], y[j] /u [u]
t [t] > ch [tɕ] ts [ts]
d [d] > j [ʑ] z [z]
s [s] > sh [ɕ] s [s]
z [z] > j [ʑ] z [z]
n [n] > n [ɲ] n [n]
h [h] > h [ç] f [ɸ]


Middle Korean The prescriptive spellings and pronunciations were ultimately ignored:

  • The "muddy" (全濁) onsets were pronounced (and spelt) with plain consonants instead of emphatic consonants;
  • The kh- (溪) onset tended to be pronounced without aspiration;
  • The l- (來) onset was pronounced ㄴ [n] when word-initial (i.e. the first character of a compound) (but see the note below about North Korean);
  • The ny- (日) onset was not pronounced when word-initial;
  • The ng- (疑) onset was not pronounced at all.

Modern Korean This change is omitted from the chart:

d [t] > j [tɕ] / _i [i], _y- [j-]
t [tʰ] ch [tɕʰ]

Following which: y [j] > null /tɕ_ and tɕʰ_. While the result of this change is reflected as such in the orthography, reflexes of T and TR that underwent those changes are expressed in the charts here as d/t + y-.

Furthermore:

  • r [ɾ] > n [n] / #_ (this change has been reversed in North Korea due to spelling pronunciation)
  • following which: n [n] > Ø / _[i,j]

Korean also has an extensive consonant sandhi system. For example:

  • b, d, j, g, s [p t tɕ k s] > [p' t' tɕ' k' s'] after consonants (in compounds)

Vietnamese

The IPA transcriptions assume maximal diaphonemic distinctions according to the orthography, with the exception of d [z ~ j] and gi [z ~ j], which are not contrastive in any major dialect. However, no modern dialect maintains maximal distinctions, with details on the major dialectal realizations of the onsets given below:

C_ Hanoi Saigon
v [v] [v] [j]
d [z ~ j] [z]
gi [z ~ j]
r [r] [r]
ch [c] [tɕ] [c]
tr [ʈ] [ʈ]
x [s] [s] [s]
s [ʂ] [ʂ]
qu [kw] [kw] [w]

Despite the above correspondences, a shift is ongoing in some Southern (Saigon) speakers where v, ch, tr, x, and s may be merged with the Northern (Hanoi) pronunciation. In addition, kh [x] may still be pronounced as [kʰ] in the South, but this is becoming increasingly non-standard.


Rimes

MC rimes are traditionally grouped into four divisions (等). The divisions might have had something to do with the vowels and/or medials (semivowels before the main vowel). The divisions are also useful as categories in MC phonotactics. In Baxter's orthography:

  • third-division rimes are written with "i", or with "j" followed by any other vowel;
  • first-division rimes are written with back vowels "a", "o" or "u";
  • second-division rimes are written with low front vowels "æ" or "ɛ" (which had a tendency to merge with each other);
  • fourth-division rimes are written with "e", which later tended to shift to "je" thereby merging with the third-division rimes

Baxter further categorized the large third-division into three categories:

  • "Independent" rimes, limited to coming after labials and velars/laryngeals, with a tendency to merge with other, more fully distributed rimes
  • "Mixed" rimes, with a more complete distribution after several series of onset consonants;
  • "Chongniu" rimes. These rimes are distributed widely just liked "mixed" rimes. Furthermore, a distinction referred to as chongniu (重紐) was made among characters with labial or velar/laryngeal onsets. The nature of this distinction is unknown but it was likely phonemic. The two categories can be referred to as type A and type B. (They are also, confusingly, called "division-four chongniu rimes" and "division-three chongniu rimes", based on their placement in rime books, even though the rimes themselves are division-three (do not confuse with actual division-four rimes).) The distinction is represented in Baxter's orthography with an extra -i- or -j- for those characters in chongniu type A rimes.

Like several modern southern Sinitic languages, MC permitted the consonant codas of -p, -t, -k, -m, -n and -ng. Baxter also uses the notations of -wk and -wng in a few rimes, which might reflect MC phonology. In MC, rimes ending on stops (-ap, -at, -ak) are treated as belonging to the corresponding rimes ending on nasals (-am, -an, -ang).

Within many of the rime categories, characters were further divided into kaikou (開口) and hekou (合口), which probably referred to the presence of some kind of labialization (denoted as an additional -w- in Baxter's orthography). This distinction was generally neutralized with both labial onsets and labial codas. Instead, rimes with labial codas (in Baxter's orthography, those in -w, -m and -wng) are classified as kaikou. (The pair of 魚 jo and 虞 ju are kaikou and hekou respectively.)

Syllables with labial onsets are also put into kaikou or hekou rime categories, but because the distinction is neutralized, if a given kaikou rime occurs with labials, its corresponding hekou rime would (usually) not occur with labials, and vice versa. In particular:

  • In the second and fourth divisions, labial onsets are paired with kaikou rimes
  • In the first division, labial onsets are paired with kaikou rimes, except for 戈 -wa, 灰 -woj, 桓 -wan and 魂 -won.
  • In the third division "independent" category, labial onsets are paired with hekou rimes.
  • In the third division "mixed" category, labial onsets are paired with hekou rimes, except for 之 -i and 蒸 -ing.
  • In the third division "with chongniu" category, labial onsets are paired with kaikou rimes.

The rimes were, later on, grouped into categories called she (攝) based on similarity to each other.

Rimes:

She Name Division One Division Two Division Three Division Four
"Independent" "Mixed" "with Chongniu"
果 Guo 歌 a 歌 ja
戈 wa 戈 jwa
假 Jia 麻 æ 麻 jæ
麻 wæ
止 Zhi 微 jɨj 之 i 支 je 脂 ij
微 jwɨj 支 jwe 脂 wij
蟹 Xie 泰 ajH 咍 oj 夬 æjH 皆 ɛj 佳 ɛɨ 廢 jojH 祭 jejH 齊 ej
泰 wajH 灰 woj 夬 wæjH 皆 wɛj 佳 wɛɨ 廢 jwojH 祭 jwejH 齊 wej
遇 Yu 模 u 魚 jo
虞 ju
效 Xiao 豪 aw 肴 æw 宵 jew 蕭 ew
流 Liu 侯 uw 尤 juw 幽 iw
咸 Xian 談 am 覃 om 銜 æm 咸 ɛm 嚴 jæm 鹽 jem 添 em
凡 jom
深 Shen 侵 im
山 Shan 寒 an 刪 æn 山 ɛn 元 jon 仙 jen 先 en
桓 wan 刪 wæn 山 wɛn 元 jwon 仙 jwen 先 wen
臻 Zhen 痕 on 欣 jɨn 真臻 in
魂 won 文 jun 真諄 win
宕 Dang 唐 ang 陽 jang
唐 wang 陽 jwang
曾 Zeng 登 ong 蒸 ing
登 wong 蒸 wing
梗 Geng 庚 æng 耕 ɛng 庚 jæng / 清 jeng 青 eng
庚 wæng 耕 wɛng 庚 jwæng / 清 jweng 青 weng
江 Jiang 江 æwng
通 Tong 東 uwng 冬 owng 東 juwng 鍾 jowng
  • This table is organized according to Baxter's notation. The actual MC vowels continue to be debated.
  • Some rimes occur only in the departing tone (qusheng). These are marked with "-H", Baxter's notation for that tone.
  • -p, -t and -k rimes are implied for -m, -n and -ng rimes, respectively.
  • The pair of 嚴 -jæm and 凡 -jom, which are classified as kaikou and hekou respectively, are actually in complementary distribution, the former coming after velar onsets and the latter after labial onsets.
  • Baxter analyzes the rimes of 庚 jæng and 清 jeng as forming a chongniu type-B / type-A pair. He also classifies 幽 iw rimes as a "chongniu" type rime that has only type-B rimes in it, on the basis of the placement and description of the 幽 iw rime in the rime books.

Permissible onset-rime combinations ("no" does not necessarily mean that there are no characters given in those combinations in the rime books, but that such exceptions are so sparse and/or obscure that they are possibly exceptions/mistakes):

Divisions 1 & 4 Division 2 Division 3 "Independent" Division 3 "Mixed" Division 3 "Chongniu"
Kaikou Hekou Kaikou Hekou Kaikou Hekou Kaikou Hekou Kaikou Hekou
p,ph,b,m Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes + Chongniu
t,th,d,n Yes Some D1 rimes 打 No No No No No 地 No
tr,trh,dr,nr No No Yes No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
l Yes Some D1 rimes Limited No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
ts,tsh,dz,s Yes Some D1 rimes No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
z No No No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
tsr,tsrh,dzr,sr No No Yes Limited No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
tsy,tsyh,zy,sy,dzy,ny No No No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
k,kh,ng,x,h,ʔ Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes + Chongniu Yes + Chongniu
g No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes + Chongniu Yes + Chongniu
y No No No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
  • Division 1 and 4 rimes occurred in similar environments.
  • Division 3 rimes could occur in the most environments, and were also the most frequent (over 50% of characters).
  • The dental stops (t, th, d) were in complementary distribution with the retroflex stops, retroflex sibilants, and palatal sibilants.

Some of the onset-rime combinations attested in rime books correspond to extremely rare characters. Owing to the difficulty of ascertaining the pronunciation of those characters in modern languages, the modern reflexes of those combinations have been omitted (for now). Accordingly, those combinations are not included in the "Distribution" columns of the following charts.

果攝 Guo She

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC[5] Go-On Kan-On
歌一開 â a a T,l uo [uo]
but a [ɑ] (他它大那娜) 		o [ɔː]
but aa [aː] (他它那) 		o [ə], o͘ [ɔ],
a 		o [o]
but a [a] (他它那) 		u [u]
but [a] (他它那) 		a [a] a [a] a [a] a [a] o
S uo [uo] o [ɔː] o [ə], o͘ [ɔ] o [o] u [u] a [a] a [a] a [a]
wa [wa] /ts_ 		a [a] o
K e [ɤ]
but uo [uo] (我)
and a [ɑ] (阿) 		o [ɔː]
but a [aː] (阿) 		o [ə], o͘ [ɔ],
oa [wa] 		o [o]
but ê [e] (個) 		u [u] a [a] a [a] a [a]
but ae [ɛ] (個) 		a [a] o
戈一合 uâ wa ua P o [uo]
but a [ɑ] (爸) 		o [ɔː]
but aa [aː] (爸) 		o [ə], o͘ [ɔ],
oa [wa] 		o [o]
but a [a] (爸) 		u [u]
but a [a] (爸) 		a [a] a [a] a [a] a [a] wo
T,l uo [uo] o [ɔː] o [ə], o͘ [ɔ],
oa [wa] 		o [o] u [u] a [a] a [a] a [a] oa [wa] wo
S uo [uo] o [ɔː] o [ə], o͘ [ɔ],
e 		o [o] u [u] a [a] a [a] wa [wa]

also a [a] and
wae [wɛ] /s_

oa [wa] wo
K uo [uo] /k,ng,ʔ_
but e [ɤ] (戈)

e [ɤ] /kh,x_
but uo [uo] (禍和去)

wo [ʷɔː]
fo [fɔː] < kh_ 		o [ə], o͘ [ɔ],
oe [we], e 		o [o]

uo [uo] /k_23

u [u] wa [a]

[wa] < h_

a [a] wa [wa]
but wae [wɛ] (倭) 		oa/(q)ua [wa] wo
戈三開 i̯â ja ia K ie [iɛ] (茄) e [ɛː] (茄) io [jə] io [io] a [a], ia [ia] ya [ja] ya [ja] a [a] (茄) a [a] (ee/e)
戈三合 i̯wâ jwa ya K üe [yɛ] (瘸靴) e [ɛː] (瘸)
oe [œː] (靴) 		ia [ja], io [jə],
e, oe [we] 		io [io] ioe [yø] (靴) e [e] a [a] a [a] (瘸)
wa [wa] (靴) 		oa/(q)ua [wa] we

假攝 Jia She

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
麻二開 a æ aː P a [ɑ] aa [aː] a, e a [a] o [o] e [e] a [a] a [a] a [a] a
TR,nr a [ɑ] aa [aː] a, e a [a] o [o] ya [ja] a [a] a [a], ya [ja] a [a] a
SR a [ɑ] aa [aː] a, e a [a] o [o] ya [ja] a [a] a [a] a [a] a
jaː K ia [iɑ] aa [aː] a, e a [a] ia [ia] e [e] a [a] a [a] a [a] ya
麻二合 wa wæ waː SR a [ɑ] (傻) o [ɔː] (傻) oe [we],
ua [wa] 		o [o] (傻) a [a] (傻) a [a] (傻) a [a] (傻) a [a] (傻) wa
K ua [uɑ] waa [ʷaː] ua [wa] a [a]

ua [ua] /k,kh_

o [o] we [e] wa [a]

[wa] /ʔ_

wa [wa] oa/(q)ua [wa] wa
麻三開 i◌̯a jæ ia SY e [ɤ] e [ɛː] ia [ja] a [a] o [o]
but a [a] (惹) 		ya [ja] ya [ja] a [a] a [a] ee/e
S ie [iɛ] e [ɛː] ia [ja] ia [ia] ia [ia] ya [ja] ya [ja] a [a]

also eo [ʌ] /ts_

a [a] ee/e
y ie [iɛ] je [jɛː] ia [ja] ia [ia] ia [ia] ya [ja] ya [ja] ya [ja] a [a] ee/e

止攝（開口） Zhi She (Kaikou)

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
支三開 ie̯ j(i)e ji P i [i]

ei [ei] for
some p,b_ (碑卑被)

ei [ei] i i [i] i [i]
but e [e] (碑卑) 		i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i] i
i l,nr i [i] ei [ei] i i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i] but yeo [jʌ] (麗) i [i] i
TR i [ʅ] i [iː] i i [ɨ] y [ʅ] i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i] i
ɨ SR i [ʅ] i [iː] i i [ɨ] i [ʅ] i [i] i [i] a [a] hi
i SY i [ʅ]

er [ɑɚ] /ny_

i [iː] i i [ɨ] y [ʅ]]

gher [ɦəl] /ny_

i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i] i
ɨ S i [ɿ]
but i [i] (徙璽) 		i [iː]
but aai [aːi] (徙璽) 		i i [ɨ]
but ai [ai] (徙璽) 		y [ʅ] i [i] i [i] a [a] i [i]

ư [ɨ] / tsh_

hi
ji K i [i] ei [ei] /k,kh,g,x_

i [iː] /ng,ʔ,y_
but ngai [ŋɐi] (蟻)

i,
ia [ja] 		i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i]

ui [ɰi] /x,ŋ,ʔ_

i [i] i/eei
脂三開 i (j)ij ji P i [i]
but some ei [ei]
(悲美備眉湄媚魅) 		ei [ei] i, ai i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i] i
i d,l,nr i [i] ei [ei] i i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i]
but ia [iə̯] (地)
and ơi [əj] (利) 		i
TR i [ʅ] i [iː] i i [ɨ] y [ʅ] i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i] i
ɨ sr i [ʅ] i [iː] i i [ɨ] y [ʅ] i [i] i [i] a [a] hi
i SY i [ʅ]

er [ɑɚ] /ny_

i [iː] i i [ɨ] y [ʅ]

i [i] /ny_

i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i] i
ɨ S i [ɿ] i [iː]
but ei [ei] (死四) 		i i [ɨ] y [ʅ] i [i] i [i] a [a]

i [i] /z_

ư [ɨ] hi
ji K i [i] ei [ei] /k,kh,g,x_

i [iː] /ng,ʔ,y_

i i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i]

ui [ɰi] /x,ŋ,ʔ_
(CN-B)

i [i] i/eei
之三開 i i i l,nr i [i] ei [ei]
but eoi [ɵy] (裏) 		i i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i] i
TR i [ʅ] i [iː] i i [ɨ] y [ʅ] i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i] i
ɨ SR i [ʅ]
but e [ɤ] (廁) 		i [iː] i i [ɨ] y [ʅ] i [i] i [i] i [i] /_1

a [a] /_23

i [i]

ư [ɨ] /s_

hi
i SY i [ʅ]

er [ɑɚ] /ny_

i [iː] i i [ɨ] y [ʅ] i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i] i
ɨ S i [ɿ] i [iː] i i [ɨ] y [ʅ] i [i] i [i] a [a] ư [ɨ]

i [i] /s_

hi
ji K i [i] ei [ei] /k,kh,g,x_

i [iː] /ng,ʔ,h,y_

i i [i] i [i] o [o]

i [i] /ʔ,h,y_

i [i] i [i]

ui [ɰi] /x,ŋ,ʔ_

i [i] i
微三開 e̯i jɨj ji K i [i] ei [ei] /k,kh,g,x_

i [iː] /ng,ʔ,h,y_

i,
ui [wi] 		i [i] i [i] e [e] i [i] i [i]

ui [ɰi] /x,ŋ,ʔ_

i [i] i

止攝（合口） Zhi She (Hekou)

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
支三合 wie̯ jw(i)e yj l ei [ei] eoi [ɵy] ui [wi] ui [ui] e [e] ui [ui] ui [ui] u [u] uy [wi] ue
TR uei [uei] eoi [ɵy] ui [wi] ui [ui] oe [ø] ui [ui] ui [ui] yu [ju] uy [wi] ue
uj SR uai [uai] eoi [ɵy] ui [wi] ui [ui]
but oi [oi] (衰) 		oe [ø] ui [ui] ui [ui] oe [we], wi [wi] uy [wi] ue
yj SY uei [uei] eoi [ɵy] ui [wi] ui [ui]
but oi [oi] (吹炊睡) 		oe [ø] ui [ui] ui [ui] u [u]

wi [wi] /tsyh_
e [e] /ny_
but we [we] (惴)

uy [wi] ue
S uei [uei] eoi [ɵy] ui [wi] ui [ui] oe [ø] ui [ui] ui [ui] u [u] uy [wi] ue
jyj K uei [uei] wai [ʷɐi]
ngai [ŋɐi] < ng_
fai [fɐi] < x_1
wai [wɐi] < y_ 		ui [wi] ui [ui] ue [ue] ui [i] ui [i] yu [ju] (CN-A)

wi [wi] (CN-B)
we [we] (CN-B)
/k,kh,g_1,x_3

uy [wi] ue/eeue
脂三合 wi (j)wij yj l ei [ei] eoi [ɵy] ui [wi] ui [ui] e [e] ui [ui] ui [ui] yu [ju], u [u], oe [we] uy [wi] ue
TR uei [uei] eoi [ɵy] ui [wi] ui [ui] oe [ø] ui [ui] ui [ui] u [u] uy [wi] ue
uj SR uai [uai] eoi [ɵy] ui [wi] ui [ui] e [e] ui [ui] ui [ui] oe [we] uy [wi] ue
yj SY uei [uei] eoi [ɵy] ui [wi] ui [ui] oe [ø] ui [ui] ui [ui] u [u] uy [wi] ue
S uei [uei] eoi [ɵy] ui [wi] ui [ui] oe [ø] ui [ui] ui [ui] wi [wi]

u [u] /s,z_

uy [wi] ue
jyj K uei [uei]
but i [i] (遺季悸)
wai [ʷɐi]
wai [wɐi] < h,y_ 		ui [wi],
u 		ui [ui]
but i [i] (季)

vi [vi] < h,y_

ue [ue]
but i [i] (季)

vi [vi] < h,y_

ui [i] ui [i] yu [u]

we [we], yu [ju],
wi [wi] /k,kh,g_ (CN-B)
ui [ɰi] /x_ (CN-B)

uy [wi] ue/eeue/wi
微三合 we̯i jwɨj yj F ei [ei] ei [ei]
but ai [ɐi] (沸費) 		i, e, oe [we],
ui [wi] 		i [i]
i [i] i [i] i [i] i [i] uy [wi] i
K uei [uei] wai [ʷɐi]
ngai [ŋɐi] < ng_
wai [wɐi] < x_H 		ui [wi] i [i]

ui [ui] /k,ŋ_

ue [ue] we [e]

wi [i] < h_

i [i] i [i]

wi [wi] /ʔ,h_,x_1
we [we] /x_23

i [i]

uy [wi] /k,ng,x,ʔ_

ue/eeue

蟹攝（開口） Xie She (Kaikou)

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
咍一開 âi oj aj P ei [ei] ui [uːi] ai i [i] e [e] ai [ai] ai [ai] ae [ɛ] ôi [oj] ay
T,l ai [ai] oi [ɔːi]
but aai [aːi] (乃態) 		ai ai [ai]
(also oi [oi]) 		e [e] ai [ai] ai [ai] ae [ɛ] ai [aj] ay
S ai [ai] oi [ɔːi]
but aai [aːi] (猜) 		ai ai [ai]
(also oi [oi]) 		e [e] ai [ai] ai [ai] ae [ɛ] ai [aj] ay
K ai [ai] oi [ɔːi] ai oi [oi] e [e] ai [ai] ai [ai] ae [ɛ] ai [aj] ay
泰一開 âi- ajH aj P ei [ei] ui [uːi] ai, oa i [i] e [e] ai [ai] ai [ai] ae [ɛ] ai [aj] ay
T,l ai [ai] aai [aːi]

oi [ɔːi] /n_

ai, oa ai [ai] a [a] ai [ai] ai [ai] ae [ɛ]

oe [we] /l_

ai [aj] ay
S ai [ai] oi [ɔːi] ai, oa ai [ai] a [a] ai [ai] ai [ai] ae [ɛ] ai [aj] ay
K ai [ai] oi [ɔːi]
but aai [aːi] (艾) 		ai, oa oi [oi] e [e] ai [ai] ai [ai] ae [ɛ] ai [aj] ay
皆二開 ăi ɛj aːj P ai [ai] aai [aːi] ai ai [ai] a [a] e [e] ai [ai] ae [ɛ] ai [aj] ay
SR ai [ai] aai [aːi] ai ai [ai] e [e] e [e] ai [ai] ae [ɛ] ai [aj] ay
jaːj K ie [iɛ]
but a [ɑ] (尬)

also ai [ai] < h_
ai [ai] /kh_

aai [aːi] ai ai [ai]

iai [iai] /k_
but ê [e] (街尬)

a [a] e [e] ai [ai] ae [ɛ]

also ye [je] /k,h_

ai [aj]

ơi [əj] /k_3

yay
夬二開 ai- æjH aːj P ai [ai] aai [aːi] ai ai [ai] a [a] e [e] ai [ai] ae [ɛ] ai [aj] ay
dzr ai [ai] (寨) aai [aːi] (寨) ai, oe, oa.. ai [ai] e [e] ai [ai] ai [ai] yae [jɛ] ai [aj] ay
佳二開 ai ɛɨ aːj P ai [ai] aai [aːi] ai, a ai [ai] (also a [a]) a [a] e [e] ai [ai] ae [ɛ], a [a] ai [aj] ay
SR ai [ai] aai [aːi] ai, a ai [ai] a [a] e [e] ai [ai] a [a]
but wae [wɛ] (灑曬) 		ai [aj] ay
jaːj K ie [iɛ] /k,h_
but ia [iɑ] (佳)

ia [iɑ] /ng_
ai [ai] /ʔ_
but wa [ʋɑ] (娃)

aai [aːi]
but waa [waː] (娃)
and ai [ɐi] (矮) 		ai, a ai [ai]
but a [a] (娃)
and ê [e] (街)
and iai [iai] (解) 		a [a]
but ia [ia] (佳解)
and ya [ɦia] (崖涯)
and ua [ua] (娃) 		e [e] ai [ai] ae [ɛ]

a [a] /k_1
hae [hɛ] < k_23
ye [je] (鞋)

ai [aj]
but oa [wa]
(娃) 		yay
廢三開 i̯ɒi- jojH iaj ŋ i [i] aai [aːi] ui, oe, i i [i] e [e] e [e] ai [ai] ye [je] ai [aj], ê [e] i
祭三開 i̯äi- j(i)ejH jiaj P i [i]

ei [ei] / m_

ai [ɐi] e, i i [i] i [i] e [e]
ei [eː] ye [je] ê [e] i
iaj l i [i] ai [ɐi] e, i i [i] i [i] e [e] ei [eː] yeo [jʌ]
but ye [je] (例) 		ê [e] i
TR i [ʅ] ai [ɐi] e, i i [ɨ] y [ʅ] ai [ai] ei [eː] ye [je] ê [e] i
aj SR i [ʅ] ai [ɐi] e, i i [ɨ] y [ʅ] e [e] ei [eː] e [e] ê [e] (hi???)
iaj SY i [ʅ] ai [ɐi] e, i i [ɨ] y [ʅ] e [e] ei [eː] e [e]

eo [ʌ] /zy_

ê [e] i
ts i [i] ai [ɐi] e, i i [i] i [i] ai [ai] ei [eː] e [e] ê [e] i
jiaj K i [i] ai [ɐi]
e, i i [i] i [i] e [e]

ei [eː] < y_

ei [eː] e [e]

ye [je] /ng,y_
ae [ɛ] /ʔ_

ê [e] ('yi=eei)
齊四開 iei ej jiaj P i [i] ai [ɐi] e, i i [i] i [i] ai [ai] ei [eː] i [i]

also pye [pʰje] < p,b_

ê [e] i
iaj T,l i [i] ai [ɐi] e, oe, ui i [i]
but ai [ai] (低底娣)
and oi [oi] (梯) 		i [i] ai [ai] ei [eː] ye [je]
also yeo [jʌ] /t_
and i [i] /l_

i [i] /n_

ê [e] i
S i [i] ai [ɐi] e i [i]
but ê [e] (砌洗細壻) 		i [i] ai [ai] ei [eː] e [e]

also eo [ʌ] /s,tsh_

ê [e] i
jiaj K i [i] ai [ɐi] e, oe i [i]
but ê [e] (雞契係)
and hai (溪) 		i [i] e [e] ei [eː] ye [je] ê [e] eei

蟹攝（合口） Xie She (Hekou)

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
灰一合 uâi woj uaj P ei [ei] ui [uːi] oe, (m,
e, er, ui) 		i [i], oi [oi] e [e] ai [ai], e [e] ai [ai] ae [ɛ] uy [wi] ue
T,l uei [uei]

ei [ei] /n,l_

eoi [ɵy]
but oi [ɔːi] (內) 		ui, (u, oe) ui [ui]
but oi [oi] (堆碓) 		e [e] ai [ai] ai [ai] oe [we]

ae [ɛ] /T_3
except 退 (oe)

uy [wi] ue
S uei [uei] eoi [ɵy] ui ui [ui] oe [ø] ai [ai] ai [ai] oe [we] /_12

wae [wɛ] /s_3
wi [wi] /tsh_3

uy [wi] ue
K uei [uei]
but uai [uai] (塊) 		ui [uːi]
but wai [ʷai] (傀塊)

wai [ʷɐi] < k,ng_

oe, (ui, e,
er, oai, ai) 		ui [ui]

i [i] /x,h_
but oi [oi] (灰恢煨)

ue [ue] we [e] wai [ai]

[wai] /ʔ_

oe [we]

ae [ɛ] /k,ng_3

uy [wi] ue
泰一合 wâi- wajH uaj T uei [uei] eoi [ɵy] ui/oe ui [ui] oe [ø] ai [ai] ai [ai] ae [ɛ] uê [we] ue
S uei [uei] eoi [ɵy] oe ui [ui] oe [ø] ai [ai] ai [ai] oe [we] ôi [oj] ue
K uei [uei]
but kuai [kʰuai] (膾儈)
and wai [ʋai] (外) 		kui2 [kʰuːi˧˥] < k_

wai3 [wɐi˧] < x_
oi [ɔːi] (外)
wui6 [wuːi˨] (會)
kui2 [kʰuːi˧˥] (繪）

oe/oa/
oai/e/er.. 		uai [uai]
but oi [oi] (外)

i [i] /h_

ue [ue]
but a [a] (外) 		we [e] wai [ai] oe [we] oai/(q)uai [waj]

ôi [oj] /h_

ue
皆二合 wăi wɛj waːj K uai [uai] waai [ʷaːi] oai, (oe,
oa, ui, ai) 		uai [uai]
fai [fai] < h_ 		ua [ua] we [e] wai [ai]

[wai] /h_

oe [we]

we [we] /x_

uy [wi] way
夬二合 wai- wæjH waːj K uai [uai]
but ua [uɑ] (話) 		waai [ʷaːi]
but waa [waː] (話) 		oa/oe
/oai/ui 		uai [uai]
but fa [fa]
or va [va] (話) 		ua [ua]
also o [o] (話) 		we [e] wai [ai] wae [wɛ]
but wa [wa] (話)

oe [we] /ʔ_

oai/(q)uai [waj] way
佳二合 wai wɛɨ waːj K ua [uɑ]
but uo [uo] (蝸) 		waa [ʷaː]
but wo [wɔː] (蝸媧) 		oa/ui
(/oe) 		ua [ua] /k_
but vo [vo] (蝸媧)

a [a] /h,ʔ_

ua [ua]
but o [o] (畫) 		we [e] wai [ai] wa [wa] /x,h,ʔ_

wae [wɛ] /k,kh_

oai/(q)uai [waj] way
廢三合 i̯wɒi- jwojH yaj F ei [ei] ai [ɐi] ui/i i [i]
but poi [pʰoi] (吠) 		i [i] o [o] ai [ai] ye [je] ê [e] (ue?)
K hui [xuei] < x,ʔ_ (喙穢) ui [uːi] /x_

wai [wɐi] < ʔ_

oe/ui ê [e] ue [ue] we [e] wai [ai]

[wai] /ʔ_

ye [je] uê [we] (i? ue?)
祭三合 i̯wäi- jw(i)ejH yaj TR uei [uei] eoi [ɵy] oi [oi] oe [ø] ai [ai] ei [eː] uê [we] ue
SY uei [uei] eoi [ɵy] oe/e
(/er/ui) 		oi [oi] oe [ø] e(i) [e(ː)] ei [eː] we [we] /tsy_

e [e] /sy,ny_

uê [we] ue
S uei [uei] eoi [ɵy] e/er/oe oi [oi] oe [ø] ai [ai] ei [eː] wi [wi] /tsh_

e [e] /s_

uê [we] ue
jyaj K uei [uei]
but wei [ʋei] (衛)

rui [ɻuei] < y_

wai [ʷɐi]

eoi [ɵy] /y_

oe, (ui) gui [kui] < k_

fi [fi] < h_
yui [iui] < y_

ue [ue] we [e]

also ei [eː] /y_

wei [eː] wi [wi] /k,h_

ye [je] /y_

uê [we] eeue
齊四合 iwei wej jyaj K uei [uei]
but ie [iɛ] (攜) 		wai [ʷɐi] ui/e/oe ui [ui]

fi < h_
but hi [hi] (攜)

ue [ue]
but i [i] (攜) 		we [e] wei [eː] yu [ju] /_1

ye [je] /_3

uê [we] eeue

遇攝 Yu She

Note that the onset outcomes in Yue and Hakka treat 模一開 as a hekou rime.

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
模一開 uo u uə̆ P u [u] ou [ou] o͘ [ɔ] u [u] u [u] u [u] o [o] o [o]

some u [u]

ô [o] u
T,l u [u] ou [ou] o͘ [ɔ] u [u] u [u] u [u] o [o] o [o]

u [u] /t_3,d_23

ô [o] u
S u [u]
but uo [uo] (措錯) 		ou [ou] o͘ [ɔ] i [ɨ] u [u] u [u] o [o] o [o] ô [o] u
K u [u] u [uː]

fu [fuː] < kh,x_
wu [wuː] < h,ʔ_
ng [ŋ̩] < ng_

o͘ [ɔ] u [u]

fu [u] < x,h_
vu [vu] < ʔ_
n [n̩] < ng_12

u [u]

also ng [ɦŋ] < ng_

u [u] o [o]

wo [o] /ʔ_

o [o] ô [o] u
魚三開 i̯wo jo iə̆ l,nr ü [y]
but u [u] (廬蘆) 		eoi [ɵy] u/ir/i i [i] /l_
but u (廬蘆)

n [n̩] (女)

iu [y] yo [jo] yo [jo] yeo [jʌ] ư [ɨ] eeu
TR u [u] yu [yː]
but eoi [ɵy] (除) 		u/ir/i u [u] y [ʅ] yo [jo] yo [jo] yeo [jʌ] ư [ɨ] eeu
əə̆ SR u [u]
but uo [uo] (所) 		o [ɔː] o͘ [ɔ]
(/oe/e/o) 		i [ɨ]
but o [o] (所) 		u [u] yo [jo] o [o] o [o]

also eo [ʌ] /tsr,dzr_

ư [ɨ] u
iə̆ SY u [u] yu [yː] u/ir/i u [u]

i [i] < ny_

y [ʅ]

zy [zʅ] or lu [lu] /ny_

yo [jo] yo [jo] eo [ʌ] ư [ɨ] eeu
S ü [y] eoi [ɵy] u/ir/i i [i] iu [y] yo [jo] yo [jo] eo [ʌ] ư [ɨ] eeu
K ü [y] eoi [ɵy]

jyu [jyː] < ng,ʔ,y_

u/ir/i i [i]
but n [n̩] (魚漁) 		iu [y]
but ng [ɦŋ] (魚) 		o [o] yo [jo] eo [ʌ]

yeo [jʌ] /y_

ư [ɨ] eeu
虞三合 i̯u ju yə̆ F u [u] u [uː]

ou [ou] /m_

u, (o͘ [ɔ]) u [u] u [u] u [u] u [u] u [u] u [u] u
l ü [y] eoi [ɵy] u/i(/ir) êu [eu] eu [ɤ] u [u] u [u] u [u] u [u] eeu
TR u [u] yu [yː] u
(/i/iu/o͘/iau) 		u [u]

i [i] < nr_

y [ʅ] u [u] yu [ju] yu [ju] u [u] eeu
uə̆ SR u [u] o [ɔː]
but ou [ou] (數) 		o͘ [ɔ]
(/i/u/iao) 		u [u] u [u] u [u] yu [ju] u [u] u [u] u
yə̆ SY u [u] yu [yː] u/i
(/iu) 		u [u]

i [i] /ny_

y [ʅ]

zy [zʅ] or lu [lu] /ny_

u [u]　 yu [ju] u [u] u [u] eeu
S ü [y] eoi [ɵy] u/i
(/iu/ir) 		i [i] iu [y] u [u] yu [ju] u [u]

wi [wi] /tsh_23

u [u] eeu
K ü [y] eoi [ɵy]

jyu [jyː] < ng,ʔ,h,y_

u/i i [i] iu [y] u [u] u [u] u

yu [ju] /y_

u [u] eeu

效攝 Xiao She

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
豪一開 âu aw aw P ao [ɑu] ou [ou] o/so͘ [ɔ] (/au) au [au] au [ɔ] au [oː] au [oː] o [o] ao [aw] aw
T,l ao [ɑu] ou [ou] o/so͘ [ɔ] (/au) au [au] au [ɔ] au [oː] au [oː] o [o] ao [aw] aw
S ao [ɑu] ou [ou] o/so͘ [ɔ] (/au) au [au] au [ɔ] au [oː] au [oː] o [o] ao [aw] aw
K ao [ɑu] ou [ou] o/so͘ [ɔ] (/au) au [au] au [ɔ] au [oː] au [oː] o [o] ao [aw] aw
肴二開 au æw aːw P ao [ɑu] aau [aːu] au/a au [au] au [ɔ] eu [joː] au [oː] o [o] ao [aw] aw
nr ao [ɑu] aau [aːu] au/a (/iau) au [au] iau [iɔ] eu [joː] au [oː] yo [jo], o [o] ao [aw] aw
TR ao [ɑu] aau [aːu] au/a au [au] au [ɔ] eu [joː] au [oː] yo [jo]

o [o] /dr_3

ao [aw] aw
SR ao [ɑu] aau [aːu] au/a au [au] au [ɔ] eu [joː] au [oː] o [o] ao [aw] aw
jaːw K iao [iɑu] aau [aːu] au/a au [au] iau [iɔ] you [joː] au [oː] yo [jo] ao [aw] eew
宵三開 i̯äu j(i)ew jiaw P iao [iɑu] iu [iːu] iau iau [iau] iau [iɔ] eu [joː] eu [joː] yo [jo] iêu [iə̯w] eew/ew
iaw l iao [iɑu] iu [iːu] iau iau [iau] iau [iɔ] eu [joː] eu [joː] yo [jo] iêu [iə̯w] eew/ew
TR ao [ɑu] iu [iːu] iau au [au] au [ɔ] eu [joː] eu [joː] yo [jo] iêu [iə̯w] eew/ew
SY ao [ɑu] iu [iːu] io/iau au [au]

iau [iau] /ny_

au [ɔ]

iau [iɔ] /ny_

eu [joː] eu [joː] o [o] iêu [iə̯w] eew/ew
S iao [iɑu] iu [iːu] io/iau iau [iau] iau [iɔ] eu [joː] eu [joː] o [o] iêu [iə̯w] eew/ew
jiaw K iao [iɑu] iu [iːu] iau iau [iau] iau [iɔ] eu [joː] eu [joː] yo [jo] iêu [iə̯w] eew/ew
蕭四開 ieu ew iaw T iao [iɑu] iu [iːu] iau, (io) iau [iau] iau [iɔ] eu [joː] eu [joː] yo [jo] iêu [iə̯w] eew/ew
S iao [iɑu] iu [iːu] iau iau [iau] iau [iɔ] eu [joː] eu [joː] o [o] iêu [iə̯w] eew/ew
jiaw K iao [iɑu] iu [iːu] iao, (io) iau [iau] iau [iɔ] eu [joː] eu [joː] yo [jo] iêu [iə̯w] eew/ew

流攝 Liu She

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
侯一開 ə◌̯u uw əw P ou [ou]

u [u] /m_X (母牡)
but ou [ou] (某)
ao [ɑu] /m_H

au [ɐu]
but ou [ou] (母) 		o͘ [ɔ]
/o/io/u 		iau [iau]

au [au] /m_X
but u [u] (母)

eu [ɤ]
but u [u] (母) 		u [u] ou [oː] u [u]
but o [o] (母) 		âu [ə̆w] uw
T,l ou [ou] au [ɐu] au/io/o͘ [ɔ] êu [eu] eu [ɤ] u [u] ou [oː] u [u] âu [ə̆w] hiw
S ou [ou] au [ɐu] au/o/o͘ [ɔ] êu [eu] eu [ɤ] u [u] ou [oː] u [u] âu [ə̆w] hiw
K ou [ou] au [ɐu] au/io/o͘ [ɔ] êu [eu] eu [ɤ] u [u] ou [oː] u [u] âu [ə̆w] hiw (/iw)
尤三開 iə◌̯u juw iw/

məw

F u [u]
but ou [ou] (否缶)

ou [ou] /m_
but ao [ɑu] (矛)

au [ɐu], u [u]

au [ɐu] /m_
but aau [aːu] (矛)

io/o͘ [ɔ],
u 		u [u], êu [eu]
but au [au] (矛) 		u [u], eu [ɜ] u [u] uu [uː],
ou [oː] 		u [u]

o [o] /m_

u [u]

âu [ə̆w] /m_

uw (/ow/ue)
l,nr iou [iou] au [ɐu] iu [iu] ieu [iɤ] u [u] /l_

yu [ju] /nr_

iu [juː] yu [ju] ưu [ɨw] iw
TR ou [ou] au [ɐu] u [u] eu [ɤ] iu [juː] iu [juː] yu [ju] u [u] iw
əw SR ou [ou] au [ɐu] u [u] eu [ɤ] yu [ju] uu [uː] u [u] ưu [ɨw] hiw
iw SY ou [ou] au [ɐu] u [u]
yiu [jiu] < ny_ 		eu [ɤ] yu [ju] iu [juː] u [u] u [u] iw
S iou [iou] au [ɐu] iu iu [iu] ieu [iɤ] yu [ju] iu [juː] u [u] u [u] iw
iw K iou [iou] au [ɐu]
jau [jɐu] < kh,x_ 		iu [iu] ieu [iɤ] u [u]

iu [juː],
yu [ju] /y_

iu [juː] u [u]

yu [ju] /y_,
x_1,h_23

ưu [ɨw] iw
幽三開 i̯ěu jiw jiw P iao [iɑo] /p_

iou [iou] /m_

iu [iːu] /p_

au [ɐu]/ m_

iu iau [iau] iau [iɔ] iu [juː] iu [juː] yo [jo]

yu [ju] /m_

âu [ə̆w] iw
K iou [iou] au [ɐu] iu êu [eu]

iu [iu] /ʔ_

ieu [iɤ] iu [juː] iu [juː] yu [ju] âu [ə̆w] iw/eeiw


咸攝（舒聲） Xian She (Nasal Coda)

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
談一開 âm am am T,l an [an] aam [aːm] am [am] e [e] an [aɴ] an [aɴ] am [am] am [am] am
S an [an] aam [aːm] am [am]
but iam [iam] (暫) 		e [e] an [aɴ] an [aɴ] am [am] am [am] am
K an [an] am [ɐm] am [am] oe [ø] an [aɴ] an [aɴ] am [am] am [am] am
覃一開 â.m om am T,l an [an] aam [aːm] am [am] e [e] /t,d,l_

oe [ø] /th,n_

on [oɴ] an [aɴ] am [am] am [am] am
S an [an] aam [aːm] am [am] oe [ø] on [oɴ] an [aɴ] am [am] am [am] am
K an [an] am [ɐm] am [am] oe [ø]

e [e] /kh,x_

on [oɴ] an [aɴ] am [am] am [am] am
銜二開 am æm aːm SR an [an] aam [aːm] am [am] e [e] en [eɴ] an [aɴ] am [am] am [am] am
jaːm K ian [iɛn] aam [aːm] am [am] e [e] en [eɴ] an [aɴ] am [am] am [am] yam
咸二開 ăm ɛm aːm l ian [iɛn] (臉) im [iːm] (臉) iên [ien] (臉) i [i] (臉) en [eɴ] an [aɴ] am [am] iên [iə̯n] am
TR an [an] aam [aːm] am [am] e [e] en [eɴ] an [aɴ] yam [jam]

am [am] /nr_

am [am] am
SR an [an] aam [aːm] am [am] e [e] en [eɴ] an [aɴ] am [am] am [am] am
jaːm K ian [iɛn]
but an [an] (黯) 		aam [aːm]
but aan [aːn] (醶)
and am [ɐm] (黯) 		am [am] e [e]
but oe [ø] (函黯) 		en [eɴ] an [aɴ] am [am] am [am] yam
嚴三開 i̯ɒm jæm iam K ian [iɛn] im [iːm] iam [iam] i [i] on [oɴ] en [eɴ] eom [ʌm]
but heum [hɯm] (欠) 		iêm [iə̯m] em
凡三合 i̯wɒm jom iam F an [an] aan [aːn] am [fam] e [e] on [oɴ] an [aɴ] eom [ʌm] am [am] am
鹽三開 i̯äm j(i)em jiam P ian [iɛn] in [iːn] iam [iam] i [i] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] yeom [jʌm] iêm [iə̯m] em(/eem)
iam l,nr ian [iɛn] im [iːm] iam [iam] i [i] /l_
oe [ø] /nr_ 		en [eɴ] en [eɴ] yeom [jʌm] /l_
but jeom [tɕʌm] (粘) 		iêm [iə̯m] em(/eem)
TR an [an] im [iːm] am [am] oe [ø] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] yeom [jʌm] iêm [iə̯m] em(/eem)
SY an [an] im [iːm] am [am]

iam [iam] /ny_

oe [ø] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] eom [ʌm] iêm [iə̯m] em(/eem)
S ian [iɛn] im [iːm] iam [iam] i [i] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] am [am] iêm [iə̯m] em(/eem)
jiam K ian [iɛn] im [iːm] iam [iam] i [i] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] yeom [jʌm] /kh,g,h,y_

eom [ʌm] /k,x,ng,ʔ_

iêm [iə̯m] em(/eem/yem)
添四開 iem em iam T,l ian [iɛn] im [iːm] iam [iam] i [i] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] yeom [jʌm] iêm [iə̯m] em
S ian [iɛn] im [iːm] iam [iam] i [i] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] am [am]

eom [ʌm] /s_

iêm [iə̯m] em
jiam K ian [iɛn] im [iːm] iam [iam] i [i] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] yeom [jʌm] iêm [iə̯m] eem

咸攝（入聲） Xian She (Plosive Coda)

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
盍一開 âp ap ap T,l a [a] aap [aːp] ab [ap] aq [aʔ] apu [oː] apu [oː] ap [ap] ap [ap] a
K e [ɤ] ap [ɐp] ab [ap] eq [əʔ] apu [oː] apu [oː] ap [ap] ap [ap] o
合一開 â.p op ap T,l a [a] aap [aːp] ab [ap] aq [aʔ] opu [oː] opu [oː] ap [ap] ap [ap] a
S a [a] aap [aːp] ab [ap] aq [aʔ] opu [oː] opu [oː] ap [ap] ap [ap] a
K e [ɤ] ap [ɐp] ab [ap] eq [əʔ] opu [oː] opu [oː] ap [ap]

hap [hap] < k,kh_

ap [ap] o
狎二開 ap æp jaːp K ia [iɑ] aap [aːp]
but aat [aːt] (壓) 		ab [ap] aq [aʔ]
iaq [iaʔ] /k_ 		epu [joː] apu [oː] ap [ap] ap [ap] ee
洽二開 ăp ɛp aːp TR a [a] aap [aːp] ab [ap] aq [aʔ] epu [joː] apu [oː] a
SR a [a] aap [aːp] ab [ap] aq [aʔ] epu [joː] apu [oː] ap [ap] ap [ap] a
jaːp K ia [iɑ] aap [aːp]
but ap [ɐp] (恰) 		ab [ap] aq [aʔ]
also iaq [iaʔ] /h_ 		epu [joː] apu [oː] yeop [jʌp]

eup [ɯp] /kh_
ap [ap] /x_

ap [ap] ee
業三開 i̯ɒp jæp iap K ie [iɛ] ip [iːp] iab [iap] iq [iɪʔ] opu [oː] epu [joː] eop [ʌp]

yeop [jʌp] /x_

iêp [iə̯p] ee/e
乏三合 i̯wɒp jop iap F fa [a] faat [faːt] (法)
fat [fɐt] (乏) 		fab [fap] (法)
fad [fat] (乏) 		faq [faʔ] (法)
vaq [vaʔ] (乏) 		opu [oː] apu [oː] beop [pʌp] (法)

pip [pʰip] (乏)

phap [fap] (f)a
葉三開 i̯äp j(i)ep iap l,nr ie [iɛ] ip [iːp]
but it [iːt] (捷睫) 		liab [liap] < l_

ngiab [ŋiap] < nr_

aq [aʔ] /l_
iq [iɪʔ] /nr_ 		epu [joː] epu [joː] yeop [jʌp]
but seop [sʌp] (聶) 		iêp [iə̯p] ee/e
TR e [ɤ] ip [iːp] ab [ap] aq [aʔ] epu [joː] epu [joː] yeop [jʌp]

ap [ap] /trh_

iêp [iə̯p] ee/e
SY e [ɤ] ip [iːp] ab [ap] eq [əʔ] epu [joː] epu [joː] eop [ʌp]
but yeop [ʌp] (喦) 		iêp [iə̯p] ee/e
S ie [iɛ] ip [iːp] iab [iap] iq [iɪʔ] epu [joː] epu [joː] eop [ʌp] iêp [iə̯p] ee/e
jiap K ie [iɛ] ip [iːp] iab [iap] iq [iɪʔ] epu [joː] epu [joː] eop [ʌp]

yeop [jʌp] /h,y_

iêp [iə̯p] ee/e
帖四開 iep ep iap T ie [iɛ] ip [iːp] iab [iap] iq [iɪʔ] epu [joː] epu [joː] yeop [jʌp] iêp [iə̯p] ee
S ie [iɛ] ip [iːp] iab [iap] iq [iɪʔ] epu [joː] epu [joː] heop [hʌp] < ts_

eop [ʌp] /s_

iêp [iə̯p] ee
jiap K ie [iɛ]
but ia [iɑ] (頰俠) 		ip [iːp]
but ap [aːp] (頰俠) 		iab [iap] iaq [iaʔ]
but iq [iɪʔ] (頰俠) 		epu [joː] epu [joː] hyeop [hjʌp] < k,kh,x,h_
but gyeop [kjʌp] (唊) 		iêp [iə̯p] ee

深攝 Shen She

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
侵三開 i̯əm (j)im jim P ing [iɪŋ] (稟)
in [in] (品) 		an [ɐn] in [in] in [in] in [iɴ] in [iɴ] um [um] âm [ə̆m] im
im l,nr in [in] am [ɐm] im [im] in [in] in [iɴ] in [iɴ] im [im] âm [ə̆m] im
TR en [ən] am [ɐm] em [əm] en [ən] in [iɴ] in [iɴ] im [im] âm [ə̆m] im
əm SR en [ən] am [ɐm] êm [em] en [ən] in [iɴ] in [iɴ] am [am] âm [ə̆m] him
im SY en [ən] am [ɐm] em [əm]

im [im] /ny_

en [ən]

in [in] /ny_

in [iɴ] in [iɴ] im [im] âm [ə̆m] im
S in [in]
but ün [yn] (尋潯) 		am [ɐm] im [im] in [in] in [iɴ] in [iɴ] im [im] âm [ə̆m] im
jim K in [in] am [ɐm]
jam [jɐm] < kh,x_ 		im [im] in [in] on [oɴ] in [iɴ] eum [ɯm] âm [ə̆m] im/yim
緝三開 i̯əp (j)ip ip l i [i] ap [ɐp]
but aap [aːp] (立白) 		êb [ep]
but ib [ip] (立) 		iq [iɪʔ] ipu [juː] ipu [juː] ip [ip] âp [ə̆p] i
TR e [ɤ] (蟄)
or i [ʅ] (縶) 		at [ɐt] (蟄)
or ap [ɐp] (縶) 		eb [əp]

ib [ip] /nr_

eq [əʔ] ipu [juː] ipu [juː] ip [ip] âp [ə̆p] i
əp SR i [ʅ] ap [ɐp]
but aap [aːp] (澀白) 		êb [ep] eq [əʔ] ipu [juː] ipu [juː] eup [ɯp] /tsr_

ap [ap] /sr_

âp [ə̆p] hi
ip SY i [ʅ]
ru [ɻu] < ny_ 		ap [ɐp] eb [əp]

ib [ip] /ny_

eq [əʔ] ipu [juː] ipu [juː] ip [ip]

eup [ɯp] /sy_

âp [ə̆p] i
S i [i] ap [ɐp] (緝輯)
or aap [aːp] (集習襲) 		ib [ip] iq [iɪʔ] ipu [juː] ipu [juː] ip [ip]

eup [ɯp] /z_

âp [ə̆p] i
jip K i [i]
but ei [ei] (給白) 		ap [ɐp]
jap [jɐp] < kh_ 		ib [ip] iq [iɪʔ] opu [oː]

ipu [juː] /ʔ_

ipu [juː] eup [ɯp] âp [ə̆p] i/yi

山攝（開口舒聲） Shan She (Kaikou, Nasal Coda)

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
寒一開 ân an an T,l an [an] aan [aːn] an [an] e [e] an [aɴ] an [aɴ] an [an] an [an] an
S an [an] aan [aːn] an [an] e [e] an [aɴ] an [aɴ] an [an] an [an] an
K an [an] on [ɔːn] on [on] oe [ø] an [aɴ] an [aɴ] an [an] an [an] an
刪二開 an æn aːn P an [an] aan [aːn] an [an] e [e] en [eɴ] an [aɴ] an [an] an [an] an
SR an [an] aan [aːn] an [an] e [e] en [eɴ] an [aɴ] an [an] an [an] an
jaːn K ian [iɛn] aan [aːn] ian [ian] i [i] en [eɴ] an [aɴ] an [an] an [an] yan
山二開 ăn ɛn aːn P an [an] aan [aːn] an [an] e [e] en [eɴ] an [aɴ] an [an] an [an]

iên [iə̯n] /b_

an
TR an [an] aan [aːn] an [an] e [e] en [eɴ] an [aɴ] an [an] an [an] an
SR an [an] aan [aːn] an [an] e [e] en [eɴ] an [aɴ] an [an] an [an] an
jaːn K ian [iɛn] aan [aːn] ian [ian]

an [an] /h_

i [i] en [eɴ] an [aɴ] an [an] an [an] yan
元三開 i̯ɒn jon ian K ian [iɛn]
but üan [yɛn] (軒) 		in [iːn] ian [ian] i [i] on [oɴ] en [eɴ] eon [ʌn] iên [iə̯n]
but ôn [on] (言) 		en
仙三開 i̯än j(i)en jian P ian [iɛn] in [iːn] iên [ien] i [i] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] yeon [jʌn] iên [iə̯n] en/een
ian l ian [iɛn] in [iːn] iên [ien] i [i] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] yeon [jʌn] iên [iə̯n] en/een
TR an [an] in [iːn] an [an] oe [ø]

i [i] /nr_

en [eɴ] en [eɴ] yeon [jʌn] iên [iə̯n] en/een
an SR an [an] in [iːn] an [an] e [e] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] an [an] iên [iə̯n] en/een
ian SY an [an] in [iːn] an [an]

yan [ian] < ny_

oe [ø] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] eon [ʌn] iên [iə̯n] een
S ian [iɛn] in [iːn] iên [ien] i [i] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] eon [ʌn] iên [iə̯n] en/een
jian K ian [iɛn] in [iːn] ian [ian] i [i] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] eon [ʌn]

yeon [jʌn] /kh,y_
(CN-B)

iên [iə̯n] en/een
先四開 ien en jian P ian [iɛn] in [iːn] iên [ien] i [i] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] yeon [jʌn] iên [iə̯n] en
ian T,l ian [iɛn] in [iːn] iên [ien] i [i] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] yeon [jʌn] iên [iə̯n]

uyên [wiə̯n] / l_

en
S ian [iɛn] in [iːn] iên [ien] i [i] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] eon [ʌn] iên [iə̯n] en/een
jian K ian [iɛn] in [iːn] ian [ian] i [i] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] yeon [jʌn] iên [iə̯n]

also uyên [wiə̯n] /h_

en/een/yen

山攝（開口入聲） Shan She (Kaikou, Plosive Coda)

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
曷一開 ât at at T,l a [ɑ] aat [aːt] ad [at] aq [aʔ] ati [atɕi], atu [atsu] atu [atsu] al [al] at [at] a
S a [ɑ] aat [aːt] ad [at] aq [aʔ] ati [atɕi], atu [atsu] atu [atsu] al [al] at [at] a
K e [ɤ] ot [ɔːt]
aat [aːt] < ng,ʔ_ 		od [ot] eq [əʔ] ati [atɕi], atu [atsu] atu [atsu] al [al] at [at] o
黠二開 at æt aːt P a [ɑ] aat [aːt] ad [at] aq [aʔ] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] atu [atsu] al [al] at [at] (a?)
SR a [ɑ] aat [aːt] ad [at] aq [aʔ] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] atu [atsu] al [al] at [at] a
jaːt K ia [iɑ] at [ɐt] ad [at] (瞎)
od [ot] (轄) 		aq [aʔ] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] atu [atsu] al [al] at [at] ee
鎋二開 ăt ɛt aːt P a [ɑ] aat [aːt] ad [at] aq [aʔ] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu]
but ati [atɕi] (八) 		atu [atsu] al [al] at [at] (a???)
SR a [ɑ] aat [aːt] ad [at] aq [aʔ] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] atu [atsu] al [al] at [at] (a???)
jaːt K ia [iɑ] aat [aːt] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] atu [atsu] al [al] iêt [iə̯t] ee
月三開 i̯ɒt jot iat K ie [iɛ] it [iːt] iad [iat] iq [iɪʔ] oti [otɕi], otu [otsu] etu [etsu] al [al] iêt [iə̯t] e/ee
薛三開 i̯ät j(i)et jiat P ie [iɛ] it [iːt] ied [iat] iq [iɪʔ] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] etu [etsu] yeol [jʌl] iêt [iə̯t] ee
iat l ie [iɛ] it [iːt] iêd [iet] iq [iɪʔ] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] etu [etsu] yeol [jʌl] iêt [iə̯t] ee
TR e [ɤ] it [iːt] ad [at] eq [əʔ] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] etu [etsu] yeol [jʌl] iêt [iə̯t] ee
at SR e [ɤ] aat [aːt] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] etu [etsu] al [al] iêt [iə̯t] (ee????)
iat SY e [ɤ] it [iːt] ad [at]

iad [iat] /ny_

eq [əʔ]

iq [iɪʔ] /ny_

eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] etu [etsu] eol [ʌl] iêt [iə̯t] i/e
S ie [iɛ]
but üe [yɛ] (薛) 		it [iːt] ied [iet] iq [iɪʔ] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] etu [etsu] eol [ʌl] iêt [iə̯t] ee
jiat K ie [iɛ] it [iːt] iad [iat] iq [iɪʔ] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] etu [etsu] eol [ʌl] iêt [iə̯t] ee/e
屑四開 iet et jiat P ie [iɛ] it [iːt] iêd [iet] iq [iɪʔ] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] etu [etsu] yeol [jʌl] iêt [iə̯t] ee
iat T,l ie [iɛ] it [iːt] iêd [iet] iq [iɪʔ] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] etu [etsu] yeol [jʌl] /th,d,n,l_

il [il] /t,d_

iêt [iə̯t] ee
S ie [iɛ] it [iːt] iêd [iet] iq [iɪʔ] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] etu [etsu] eol [ʌl] iêt [iə̯t] ee
jiat K ie [iɛ] it [iːt] iad [iat] iq [iɪʔ] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] etu [etsu] yeol [jʌl]

eol [ʌl] /ng_

iêt [iə̯t]

êt [et] /k_ (結)

ee/(y)ee

山攝（合口舒聲） Shan She (Hekou, Nasal Coda)

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
桓一合 uân wan uan P an [an] un [uːn]
but aan [aːn] (饅幔漫) 		an [an] oe [ø] an [aɴ] an [aɴ] an [an] an [an] on
T,l uan [uan] yun [yːn] on [on] oe [ø] an [aɴ] an [aɴ] an [an] oan [wan] on
S uan [uan] yun [yːn] on [on] oe [ø] an [aɴ] an [aɴ] an [an] oan [wan] on
K uan [uan] un [uːn]

wun [wuːn] < ng_

uon [uon] /k_

fon [fon] < x_1,h_2
von [von] < x,h,ʔ_3
van [van] < h,ʔ_1
but yan [ian] (丸院)

uoe [uø] wan [aɴ]

[waɴ] /ʔ_

wan [aɴ]

[waɴ] /ʔ_

wan [wan] oan/(q)uan [wan] on
刪二合 wan wæn waːn SR uan [uan] aan [aːn] on [on] oe [ø] en [eɴ] an [aɴ] an [an] oan [wan] wan
K uan [uan] waan [ʷaːn]

waan [waːn] < ng_

uan [uan] /k_

an [an] /h,ʔ_

ue [ue] wen [eɴ] wan [aɴ]

[waɴ] /ʔ_

wan [wan] oan/(q)uan [wan] wan
山二合 wăn wɛn waːn K uan [uan] waan [ʷaːn] uan [uan] ue [ue] wen [eɴ] wan [aɴ] wan [wan] uyên [wiə̯n] gwan, hun
元三合 i̯wɒn jwon yan F an [an] aan [aːn] an [an] e [e] on [oɴ] an [aɴ] eon [ʌn] /_1

an [an] /_23

iên [iə̯n], an [an]

an [an] /m_

(f)an
K üan [yɛn]
but ruan [ɻuan] (阮)

wan [ʋan] < ʔ_X

yun [yːn] ian [ian] ioe [yø] on [oɴ]

won [oɴ] /ʔ_

wen [eɴ] won [wʌn] uyên [wiə̯n] ween
仙三合 i̯wän jw(i)en yan l ian [iɛn] (戀)
or uan [uan] (孌) 		yun [yːn] iên [ien] i [i] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] yeon [jʌn] uyên [wiə̯n] eeon
TR uan [uan] yun [yːn] on [on] oe [ø] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] yeon [jʌn] uyên [wiə̯n] ween
uan SR uan [uan] yun [yːn] on [on] oe [ø] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] eon [ʌn] uyên [wiə̯n]

oan [wan] /dzr_

(ween? wan?)
yan SY uan [uan] yun [yːn] on [on]

ion [ion] /ny_

oe [ø]

ioe [yø] /ny_

en [eɴ] en [eɴ] eon [ʌn] uyên [wiə̯n] ween
S üan [yɛn] yun [yːn] iên [ien] i [i] en [eɴ] en [eɴ] eon [ʌn] uyên [wiə̯n]
but oan [wan] (全) 		ween
jyan K üan [yɛn]
but ian [iɛn] (沿鉛) 		yun [yːn]

jyun [jyːn] < ʔ_

ian [ian] ioe [yø] wen [eɴ] wen [eɴ] yeon [jʌn] (CN-A)

won [wʌn] (CN-B)
but yeon [jʌn] /y_

uyên [wiə̯n]

iên [iə̯n] /h_

ween/eeon/(y)ween
先四合 iwen wen jyan K üan [yɛn]
but ian [iɛn] (縣) 		yun [yːn]

jyun [jyːn] < ʔ_

ian [ian] ioe [yø] wen [eɴ] wen [eɴ] yeon [jʌn] uyên [wiə̯n] ween

山攝（合口入聲） Shan She (Hekou, Plosive Coda)

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
末一合 uât wat uat P o [uo] ut [uːt] ad [at] eq [əʔ] ati [atɕi], atu [atsu] atu [atsu] al [al] at [at] wo
T,l uo [uo] yut [yːt] od [ot] eq [əʔ] ati [atɕi], atu [atsu] atu [atsu] al [al] oat [wat] wo
S uo [uo] yut [yːt] od [ot] eq [əʔ] ati [atɕi], atu [atsu] atu [atsu] al [al] oat [wat] wo
K uo [uo] ut [uːt]

waat [waːt] < ʔ_

fad [fat] (活闊)
guad [kuat] (括) 		uaq [uaʔ]
but ueq [uəʔ] (活闊) 		wati [atɕi], watu [atsu]

wati [watɕi] /ʔ_

watu [atsu]

[watsu] /ʔ_

wal [wal]

al [al] /ʔ_

oat/(q)uat [wat] wo
黠二合 wat wæt waːt SR ua [uɑ] aat [aːt] od [ot] eq [əʔ] eti [etɕi] atu [atsu] al [al] oat [wat] wa
K ua [uɑ] waat [ʷaːt] uad [uat] uaq [uaʔ] weti [etɕi] watu [atsu]

[watsu] /ʔ_

wal [wal] oat/(q)uat [wat] wa
鎋二合 wăt wɛt waːt K ua [uɑ] waat [ʷaːt] vad [vat] < h_ uaq [uaʔ] weti [etɕi] watu [atsu]

[watsu] /ʔ_

wal [wal]

al [al] /ʔ_

ôt [ot] wa
月三合 i̯wɒt jwot yat F a [ɑ] at [ɐt]
aat [aːt] /p_ 		ad [at] aq [aʔ] oti [otɕi], otu [otsu] atu [atsu] eol [ʌl]

also wol [wʌl] /b_

iêt [iə̯t]
but at [at] (閥) 		(f)a
K üe [yɛ] yut [yːt]

jyut [jyːt] < ʔ_

iad [iat] ioq [ioʔ], iuq [yɪʔ] oti [otɕi], atu [atsu]

woti [otɕi] < h_

wetu [etsu] wol [wʌl] uyêt [wiə̯t]

iêt [iə̯t] /h_

wee/we/wa/wo
薛三合 i̯wät jw(i)et yat l üe [yɛ]
but ie [iɛ] (劣) 		yut [yːt] od [ot] iq [iɪʔ] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] etu [etsu] yeol [jʌl] iêt [iə̯t] wee
TR uo [uo] yut [yːt] od [ot] eq [əʔ], oq [oʔ] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] etu [etsu] yeol [jʌl] uyêt [wiə̯t] wee
uat SR uo [uo] yut [yːt] od [ot] eq [əʔ], oq [oʔ] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] etu [etsu] wal [wal] uyêt [wiə̯t] (wa???)
yat SY uo [uo] yut [yːt] od [ot] eq [əʔ], oq [oʔ] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] etu [etsu] eol [ʌl] uyêt [wiə̯t]

iêt [iə̯t] /ny_

wee
S üe [yɛ] yut [yːt] iêd [iet] iq [iɪʔ] eti [etɕi], etu [etsu] etu [etsu] eol [ʌl] uyêt [wiə̯t] wee
jyat K üe [yɛ] yut [yːt]

jyut [jyːt] < ʔ_

iad [iat] ioq [ioʔ], iuq [yɪʔ] weti [etɕi] wetu [etsu] yeol [jʌl]

eol [ʌl] /k,ʔ_

uyêt [wiə̯t] wee
屑四合 iwet wet jyat K üe [yɛ]
but ie [iɛ] (血白) 		yut [yːt]
jyut [jyːt] < h_ 		iad [iat] ioq [ioʔ], iuq [yɪʔ] weti [etɕi] wetu [etsu] yeol [jʌl] uyêt [wiə̯t] wee

臻攝（開口） Zhen She (Kaikou)

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
痕一開 ən on ən th un [uən] (吞) an [ɐn] (吞) un [un] (吞) en [ən] (吞) on [oɴ] (吞) on [oɴ] (吞) an [an] (吞) ôn [on] (吞)
K en [ən] an [ɐn]

jan [jɐn] < ʔ_

ên [en] en [ən] on [oɴ] on [oɴ] eun [ɯn] /_1

an [an] /_23
but eun [ɯn] (很)

ân [ə̆n]
欣三開 jən jɨn in K in [in] an [ɐn]
 in [in]

iun [iun] /g,ng_

in [in] on [oɴ] in [iɴ] eun [ɯn] ân [ə̆n]
真三開 jĕn (j)in jin P in [in] an [ɐn] in [in] in [in] in [iɴ] in [iɴ] in [in] ân [ə̆n]
in l in [in] eon [ɵn] in [in] in [in] in [iɴ] in [iɴ] in [in] ân [ə̆n]
TR en [ən] an [ɐn] en [ən] en [ən] in [iɴ] in [iɴ] in [in] ân [ə̆n]
SY en [ən] an [ɐn] en [ən]

iun [iun] /ny_
but yin [in] (仁)

en [ən] in [iɴ] in [iɴ] in [in] ân [ə̆n]
S in [in]
but ün [yn] (訊汛) 		eon [ɵn]

an [ɐn] /tsh,s_1

in [in] in [in] in [iɴ] in [iɴ] in [in] ân [ə̆n]
jin K in [in] an [ɐn]
in [in]

iun [iun] /g,ng_

in [in] in [iɴ] (CN-A)

on [oɴ] (CN-B)

in [iɴ] in [in] /k,h,ʔ,y_
but eon [ʌn] (巾)

eun [ɯn] /kh,g,x,ng_

ân [ə̆n]
臻三開 jɛn in ən SR en [ən] an [ɐn]

eon [ɵn] /tsr_

in [in] en [ən] in [iɴ] in [iɴ] in [in] ân [ə̆n]

ăn [ăn] /tsr_

麧一開 ət ot ət h e [ɤ] at [ɐt] êd [et](?) oti [otɕi], otu [otsu] otu [otsu] eol [ʌl] ôt [ot]
迄三開 jət jɨt it K i [i] at [ɐt] id [it] iq [iɪʔ] oti [otɕi] itu [itsu] eul [ɯl]
but eol [ʌl] (乞) 		ât [ə̆t]
質三開 jĕt (j)it jit P i [i] at [ɐt]
but it [iːt] (必) 		id [it]

êd [et] /m_

iq [iɪʔ] iti [itɕi] itu [itsu] il [il] ât [ə̆t]
it l i [i] eot [ɵt] id [it] iq [iɪʔ] iti [itɕi] itu [itsu] yul [jul] ât [ə̆t]
TR i [ʅ] at [ɐt]
but dit [tiːt] (秩) 		ed [ət] eq [əʔ] iti [itɕi] itu [itsu] il [il] ât [ə̆t]
SY i [ʅ] at [ɐt] ed [ət]

id [it] /ny_

eq [əʔ]

also iq [iɪʔ] /ny_

iti [itɕi] itu [itsu] il [il] ât [ə̆t]
S i [i] at [ɐt] id [it] iq [iɪʔ] iti [itɕi] itu [itsu] il [il], eul [ɯl] ât [ə̆t]
jit K i [i] at [ɐt]
but yut [yːt] (乙) 		id [it]
but iad [iat] (乙) 		iq [iɪʔ] oti [otɕi], otu [otsu] itu [itsu] il [il]
but eul [ɯl] (乙) 		ât [ə̆t]
櫛三開 jɛt it ət SR e [ɤ] (瑟)
i [ʅ] (櫛陸蝨)
ie [iɛ] (櫛台) 		at [ɐt]
but it [iːt] (櫛) 		id [it] (瑟)
êd [et] (蝨)
iêd [iet] (櫛) 		əq [əʔ] iti [itɕi] itu [itsu] eul [ɯl]
but il [il] (蟋) 		ât [ə̆t]

臻攝（合口） Zhen She (Hekou)

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
魂一合 uən won un P en [ən] an [ɐn], un [uːn] un [un] en [ən] on [oɴ] on [oɴ] un [un]
but on [on] (本) 		ôn [on]

also an [an] (本)

T,l un [uən]

en [ən] /n_

eon [ɵn]

yun [yːn] /d_1,n_

un [un] en [ən] on [oɴ] on [oɴ] on [on], un [un] ôn [on]

uân [wə̆n] /l_

S un [uən]

ün [yn] /s_3

yun [yːn]

eon [ɵn] /ts_1,s_3

un [un] en [ən] on [oɴ] on [oɴ] on [on]

also un [un] /ts,dz_

ôn [on]
K un [uən] wan [ʷɐn]

kwan [kʰʷɐn] < kh_
wan [wɐn] < ng_

un [un] uen [uən] on [oɴ]

won [oɴ] /ʔ_

on [oɴ]

won [oɴ] /ʔ_

on [on] ôn [on]
文三合 juən jun yn F en [ən] an [ɐn] un [un] en [ən] un [uɴ] un [uɴ] un [un] ân [ə̆n]
K ün [yn] wan [ʷɐn] iun [iun]
but ian [ian] (員)

un [un] /x,ʔ_

iun [yn], ion [ioŋ] un [uɴ] un [uɴ] un [un]

on [on] /ʔ_

uân [wə̆n]

ân [ə̆n] /h_

真三合 juĕn win yn K ün [yn]
but iong [yʊŋ] (窘) 		wan [ʷɐn] iun [iun] iun [yn] on [oɴ]

in [iɴ] /h_

in [iɴ] yun [jun]

un [un] /h_

uân [wə̆n]

vân [və̆n] < h_

淳三合 juĕn (j)win yn l un [uən] eon [ɵn] un [un] ən [ən] in [iɴ] in [iɴ] yun [jun] uân [wə̆n]
TR un [uən] eon [ɵn] un [un] en [ən] yun [juɴ] yun [juɴ] un [un] /trh_

yun [jun] /tr_

uân [wə̆n]
SY un [uən] eon [ɵn] un [un]

yun [iun] < ny_

ən [ən] yun [juɴ] yun [juɴ] un [un] uân [wə̆n]
S ün [yn]

un [uən] /ts_1,s_2

eon [ɵn] un [un] iun [yn] yun [juɴ] yun [juɴ] un [un] uân [wə̆n]
jyn K ün [yn]
but in [in] (尹) 		gwan [kʷɐn] < k_
wan [wɐn] < h_ 		iun [iun] iun [yn], ion [ioŋ]
but in [in] (尹) 		in [iɴ] in [iɴ] yun [jun] uân [wə̆n]
沒一合 uət wot ut P o [uo]
but ei [ei] (沒白) 		ut [uːt] ud [ut] eq [əʔ] oti [otɕi], otu [otsu] otu [otsu] al [al] ôt [ot]
T,l u [u] eot [ɵt]
also at [ɐt] /n_

at [ɐt] /d_

ud [ut] eq [əʔ] oti [otɕi], otu [otsu] otu [otsu] ol [ol]

ul [ul] /n_
yul [ul] /l_

ôt [ot]
S u [u] yut [yːt]
but eot [ɵt] (卒) 		ud [ut] eq [əʔ] oti [otɕi], otu [otsu] otu [otsu] ol [ol] ôt [ot]
K u [u] wat [ʷɐt] ud [ut] ueq [uəʔ]
but oq [oʔ] (忽淴) 		oti [otɕi], otu [otsu] otu [otsu] ol [ol]

ul [ul] /k_

ôt [ot]
物三合 juət jut yt F u [u]
but uo [uo] (佛) 		at [ɐt] ud [ut] eq [əʔ] oti [otɕi], otu [otsu] utu [otsu] ul [ul] ât [ə̆t]
K ü [y]

üe [yɛ] /k,g,ng_

wat [ʷɐt]
but wat [wɐt] (屈) 		iud [iut] ioq [ioʔ], iuq [yɪʔ] uti [utɕi] utu [otsu] ul [ul] uât [wə̆t]
質三合 juĕt wit yt K ü [y] at [ɐt] iti [itɕi] itu [itsu] yul [jul]
術三合 juĕt (j)wit yt l ü [y] eot [ɵt] ud [ut], id [it] iq [iɪʔ] iti [itɕi] itu [itsu] yul [jul] uât [wə̆t]
TR u [u] eot [ɵt] od [ot] oq [oʔ] yuti [jutɕi], yutu [jutsu] yutu [jutsu] yul [jul] uât [wə̆t]
ut SR uai [uai] eot [ɵt] ud [ut] eq [əʔ] yuti [jutɕi], yutu [jutsu] yutu [jutsu] ol [ol] uât [wə̆t]
yt SY u [u] eot [ɵt] ud [ut] eq [əʔ] yuti [jutɕi], yutu [jutsu] yutu [jutsu] ul [ul] uât [wə̆t]
S ü [y] eot [ɵt] ud [ut] ioq [ioʔ], iuq [yɪʔ]
but iq [iɪʔ] (戌) 		yuti [jutɕi], yutu [jutsu] yutu [jutsu] ol [ol]

ul [ul] /s_

uât [wə̆t]
jyt K ü [y] wat [ʷɐt] id [it] ioq [ioʔ], iuq [yɪʔ] iti [itɕi], itu [itsu] itu [itsu] yul [jul] uât [wə̆t]

宕攝 Dang She

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
唐一開 âng ang aŋ P ang [ɑŋ] ong [ɔːŋ] ong [oŋ] aon [ɑ̃] au [oː] au [oː] ang [aŋ] ang [aŋ] ang
T,l ang [ɑŋ] ong [ɔːŋ] ong [oŋ] aon [ɑ̃] au [oː] au [oː] ang [aŋ] ang [aŋ]

ương [ɨə̯ŋ] /d_1

ang
S ang [ɑŋ] ong [ɔːŋ] ong [oŋ] aon [ɑ̃] au [oː] au [oː] ang [aŋ] ang [aŋ]

ương [ɨə̯ŋ] /tsh_

ang
K ang [ɑŋ] ong [ɔːŋ] ong [oŋ] aon [ɑ̃] au [oː] au [oː] ang [aŋ] ang [aŋ]

ương [ɨə̯ŋ] /k_

ang
陽三開 i̯ang jang iaŋ l,nr iang [iɑŋ] oeng [œːŋ] iong [ioŋ] ian [iã] au [oː] au [oː] yang [jaŋ]
but ang [aŋ] (釀) 		ương [ɨə̯ŋ] yang
TR ang [ɑŋ] oeng [œːŋ] ong [oŋ] an [ã] yau [joː] yau [joː] yang [jaŋ] ương [ɨə̯ŋ] yang
aːŋ SR uang [uɑŋ] ong [ɔːŋ] /tsr,tsrh,dzr_

oeng [œːŋ] /sr_

ong [oŋ] aon [ɑ̃] yau [joː], au [oː] yau [joː], au [oː] ang [aŋ] ang [aŋ]

ương [ɨə̯ŋ] /sr_

hang
iaŋ SY ang [ɑŋ] oeng [œːŋ] ong [oŋ]

yong [ioŋ] < ny_

aon [ɑ̃]

ian [iã] < ny_

yau [joː], au [oː] yau [joː], au [oː] ang [aŋ] ương [ɨə̯ŋ] yang
S iang [iɑŋ] oeng [œːŋ] iong [ioŋ] ian [iã] yau [joː], au [oː] yau [joː], au [oː] ang [aŋ] ương [ɨə̯ŋ] yang
K iang [iɑŋ] oeng [œːŋ] iong [ioŋ] ian [iã] au [oː]

yau [joː] /ʔ,y_

yau [oː] ang [aŋ]

yang [jaŋ] /x,y_

ương [ɨə̯ŋ] yang, eeing
鐸一開 âk ak ak P o [uo] ok [ɔːk] og [ok] oq [oʔ] aku [aku] aku [aku] ak [ak] ac [ak] aw
T,l uo [uo] ok [ɔːk] og [ok] oq [oʔ] aku [aku] aku [aku] ak [ak] ac [ak] aw
S uo [uo] ok [ɔːk] og [ok] oq [oʔ] aku [aku] aku [aku] ak [ak] ac [ak] aw
K e [ɤ] ok [ɔːk] og [ok] oq [oʔ] aku [aku] aku [aku] ak [ak] ac [ak]
but ach [ajk] (格) 		aw
藥三開 i̯ak jak iak l LIT
üe [yɛ] 		oek[œːk] iog [iok] iaq [iaʔ] aku [aku] aku [aku] yak [jak] ươc [ɨə̯k] ew/eew
TR LIT
uo [uo]
COL
ao [ɑu] (著) 		oek[œːk] og [ok] aq [aʔ] yaku [jaku] yaku [jaku] yak [jak] ươc [ɨə̯k] (aw? ew/eew?)
SY LIT
uo [uo]
COL
ao [ɑu] (勺) 		oek[œːk] og [ok] oq [oʔ]

aq [aʔ] /ny_

aku [aku] yaku [jaku] ak [ak] ươc [ɨə̯k] (aw? ew/eew?)
S LIT
üe [yɛ]
COL
iao [iɑu] (雀嚼削) 		oek[œːk] iog [iok] iaq [iaʔ] aku [aku] yaku [jaku] ak [ak] ươc [ɨə̯k] ew/eew
K LIT
üe [yɛ]
COL
iao [iɑu] (腳藥鑰) 		oek[œːk] iog [iok] iaq [iaʔ] aku [aku]

yaku [jaku] /ʔ,y_

yaku [jaku] ak [ak]

yak [jak] /ʔ,y_

ươc [ɨə̯k] ew/eew
唐一合 wâng wang uaŋ K uang [uɑŋ] gwong [kʷɔːŋ] < k_
kwong [kʷʰɔːŋ] < kh_
fong [fɔːŋ] < x_
wong [wɔːŋ] < ʔ,h_ 		uong [uoŋ] /k_

ong [oŋ] /x,h,ʔ_

uaon [uɑ̃] wau [oː] wau [oː] wang [waŋ] oang/(q)uang [waŋ] wang/ong
陽三合 i̯wang jwang yaŋ F ang [ɑŋ] ong [ɔːŋ] ong [oŋ] aon [ɑ̃] au [oː] au [oː] ang [aŋ] ong [awŋ], ang [aŋ],
ương [ɨə̯ŋ]

ong [awŋ] /m_

(f)ang
K uang [uɑŋ] hong [hɔːŋ] < kh_

kwong [kʷʰɔːŋ] < g_
wong [wɔːŋ] < h_

ong [oŋ]

iong [ioŋ] /kh_

uaon [uɑ̃] wau [oː] yau [joː]

au [oː] < h,y_

wang [waŋ] uông [uə̯ŋ]

ương [ɨə̯ŋ] /h_

weeng, wang
鐸一合 wâk wak uak K uo [uo] gwok [kʷɔːk] < k_

kwok [kʷʰɔːk] < kh_
fok [fɔːk] < x_
wok [wɔːk] < ng,ʔ,h_

uog [uok] /k,kh_

og [ok] /x,h_

oq [oʔ] waku [aku]

[waku] < h,ʔ_

waku [aku]

[waku] < h,ʔ_

wak [wak] oach/(q)uach [wajk] waw
藥三合 i̯wak jwak yak b fù [fu˥˩] (縛) bok [pɔːk] piog [pʰiok] boq [boʔ] aku [aku] aku [aku] ak [ak] (f)aw
K üe [yɛ] fok [fɔːk] < k,kh,g,x_

wok [wɔːk] < ʔ,h_

iog [iok] ioq [ioʔ] waku [aku] yaku [jaku]

waku [waku] /ʔ_

wak [wak] quăc [kwăk] < k_ weew

曾攝 Zeng She

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
登一開 əng ong əə̆ŋ P eng [ɤŋ] ang [ɐŋ] ên [en] an [ã] ou [oː] ou [oː] ung [uŋ]

ong [oŋ] /m_

ăng [ăŋ] hing
T eng [ɤŋ] ang [ɐŋ] ên [en] en [ən] ou [oː] ou [oː] eung [ɯŋ] ăng [ăŋ] hing
l eng [ɤŋ] ing [ɪŋ] in [in] ou [oː] ou [oː] eung [ɯŋ] ăng [ăŋ] hing
S eng [ɤŋ] ang [ɐŋ] ên [en] en [ən] ou [oː] ou [oː] eung [ɯŋ] ăng [ăŋ] hing
K eng [ɤŋ]
but en [ən] (肯) 		ang [ɐŋ] ên [en] en [ən] ou [oː] ou [oː] eung [ɯŋ]
but ang [aŋ] /h_ 		ăng [ăŋ] hing
蒸三開 i̯əng ing iə̆ŋ P ing [iɪŋ] ing [ɪŋ] ên [en] in [in] you [joː] you [joː] ing [iŋ] ăng [ăŋ] ing
l ing [iɪŋ] ing [ɪŋ] in [in] in [in] you [joː] you [joː] eung [ɯŋ] ăng [ăŋ] ing
TR eng [ɤŋ] ing [ɪŋ] en [ən] en [ən] you [joː] you [joː] ing [iŋ] ưng [ɨŋ] ing
əə̆ŋ SR eng [ɤŋ] ang [ɐŋ] you [joː] you [joː] eung [ɯŋ] ăng [ăŋ] ing
iə̆ŋ SY eng [ɤŋ] ing [ɪŋ] en [ən]

yin [in] < ny_

en [ən] you [joː] you [joː] eung [ɯŋ]

ing [iŋ] /tsyh,ny_

ưng [ɨŋ]

ăng [ăŋ] /sy,dzy_

ing
S eng [ɤŋ] ang [ɐŋ] ên [en] en [ən] you [joː] you [joː] eung [ɯŋ] ăng [ăŋ] ing
K ing [iɪŋ]
but ün [yn] (孕) 		ing [ɪŋ]
but jan [jɐn] (孕) 		in [in]
but ên [en] (凝) 		in [in]
but iun [yn]
or ion [ion] (孕) 		ou [oː]

also you [joː] /k,kh,g,x_

you [joː] eung [ɯŋ]

ing [iŋ] /y_

ăng [ăŋ]

ưng [ɨŋ] /k_

ing
德一開 ək ok ək P LIT
o [uo]
COL
ei [ei] (北) 		ak [ɐk] êd [et] oq [oʔ] oku [oku] oku [oku] uk [uk] ăc [ăk] ue
T,l LIT
e [ɤ]
COL
ei [ei] (得忒勒肋) 		ak [ɐk] êd [et]
but id [it] (特) 		eq [əʔ] oku [oku] oku [oku] euk [ɯk]
but ok [ok] (德) 		ăc [ăk]

ưc [ɨk] /t_

hiy
S LIT
e [ɤ]
COL
ei [ei] (賊塞) 		ak [ɐk] êd [et] eq [əʔ] oku [oku] oku [oku] ik [ik] (則)
eok [ʌk] (賊)
aek [ɛk] (塞) 		ăc [ăk] hiy
K LIT
e [ɤ]
COL
ei [ei] (黑) 		ak [ɐk] êd [et] eq [əʔ] oku [oku] oku [oku] euk [ɯk]
but ak [ak] (刻)
and aek [ɛk] (劾) 		ăc [ăk] hiy, iy
職三開 i̯ək ik iə̆k P i [i] ik [ɪk] id [it] iq [iɪʔ] iki [iki] yoku [joku] yeok [jʌk]
but pip [pʰip]
(逼偪愊) 		ưc [ɨk] i
l,nr i [i] ik [ɪk] id [it] iq [iɪʔ] iki [iki] /l_

yoku [joku] /nr_

yoku [joku] yeok [jʌk] /l_

ik [ik] /nr_

ưc [ɨk] i
TR i [ʅ] ik [ɪk] ed [ət] eq [əʔ] iki [iki] yoku [joku] ik [ik]
but yeok [jʌk] (陟) 		ăc [ăk]

ưc [ɨk] /dr_

i
ək SR LIT
e [ɤ]
and onset is
plain alveolar
COL
ai [ai] (色) 		ak [ɐk] /tsr,tsrh,dzr_

ik [ɪk] /sr_

êd [et] eq [əʔ] iki [iki] yoku [joku] euk [ɯk]

aek [ɛk] /sr_

ăc [ăk] hiy
iə̆k SY i [ʅ] ik [ɪk] ed [ət] eq [əʔ] iki [iki] yoku [joku] ik [ik] ưc [ɨk] i
S i [i] ik [ɪk] id [it] iq [iɪʔ] iki [iki], oku [oku] yoku [joku] ik [ik] /s_

euk [ɯk] /ts_
except 稷 (ik)

ưc [ɨk] i
K i [i] ik [ɪk] id [it] iq [iɪʔ] oku [oku] yoku [joku] euk [ɯk]

eok [ʌk] /ng,ʔ_
ik [ik] /y_

ưc [ɨk] i
登一合 wəng wong uə̆ŋ K ong [ʊŋ] gwang [kʷɐŋ] < k,h_

wang [wɐŋ] < x_

ên [en] on [oŋ] ou [oː] ou [oː] oeng [weŋ] /k_

ong [oŋ] /h_
ung [uŋ] /x_

oăng/(q)uăng [wăŋ] ung, wung
德一合 wək wok uə̆k K uo [uo] gwok [kʷɔːk] < k_

waak [waːk] < h_

uêd [uet] /k

êd [et] /h_

oq [oʔ] oku [oku]

waku [waku] < h_

oku [oku] uk [uk] /k_

ok [ok] /h_

oăc [wăk] /h_

國 (k_) > [kuə̯k] (north),
[(k)wə̆k] (south)

ue(?)
職三合 i̯wək wik yə̆k K ü [y] gwik [kʷɪk] < x_

wik [wɪk] < h_

êd [et] ioq [ioʔ], iuq [yɪʔ] oku [oku]

wiki [iki] < h_

yoku [joku] yeok [jʌk] ưc [ɨk] ue

梗攝（開口舒聲） Geng She (Kaikou, Nasal Coda)

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
庚二開 ɒng æng aːjŋ P eng [ɤŋ]
but ang [ɑŋ] (盲) 		aang [aːŋ] ang [aŋ] an [ã] yau [joː] au [oː] aeng [ɛŋ], ang [aŋ] anh [ajŋ], ang [aŋ]

anh [ajŋ] /m_

hing, (m)ung
(t) da [tɑ] (打) daa [taː] (打) da [ta] (打) tan [tã] (打) tyau [tɕoː] (打) tei [teː] (打) ta [tʰa] (打) đa [ɗa] (打) hing
l leng [lɤŋ] (冷) laang [laːŋ] (冷) lang [laŋ] (冷) lan [lã] (冷) ryau [ɺjoː] (冷) rei [ɺeː] (冷) raeng [ɾɛŋ] (冷) lanh [lajŋ] (冷) hing
nr ing [iɪŋ] ing [ɪŋ] ên [en] in [in] yau [joː] au [oː] yeong [jʌŋ] anh [ajŋ], inh [ɪjŋ] hing
TR eng [ɤŋ] aang [aːŋ] en [ən] an [ã] yau [joː] au [oː] yeong [jʌŋ], aeng [ɛŋ] anh [ajŋ] hing
SR eng [ɤŋ] aang [aːŋ] ên [en] en [ən] yau [joː] au [oː] aeng [ɛŋ]
but eong [ʌŋ] (猩)

ang [aŋ] (傖)

anh [ajŋ] hing
jaːjŋ K eng [ɤŋ]
but ing [iɪŋ] (更行杏) 		ang [ɐŋ]

aang [aːŋ] /kh_

ang [aŋ] /k,kh_

ên [en] /x,h_

an [ã] yau [joː] au [oː] yeong [jʌŋ], aeng [ɛŋ] anh [ajŋ]

also ang [aŋ] (行)

eeing
耕二開 ɛng ɛng aːjŋ P eng [ɤŋ]
but in [in] (拼)
and ang [ɑŋ] (鼆) 		aang [aːŋ] /p,ph,b_
ang [ɐŋ] /m_
but an [ɐn] (鼆)
and ing [ɪŋ] (拼迸) 		ang [aŋ]
but in (拼) 		an [ã] yau [joː] au [oː] yeong [jʌŋ] /_13

aeng [ɛŋ] /_12

anh [ajŋ] hing
TR eng [ɤŋ] aang [aːŋ] ang [aŋ] en [ən] yau [joː] au [oː] yeong [jʌŋ]
but jeung [tɕɯŋ] (橙) 		anh [ajŋ]
but inh [ɪjŋ] (丁) 		hing
SR eng [ɤŋ] ang [ɐŋ] ên [en] en [ən] yau [joː] au [oː] aeng [ɛŋ]
but eong [ʌŋ] (淨埩) 		anh [ajŋ] hing
jaːjŋ K eng [ɤŋ] /k,kh_
ing [iɪŋ] /ng,h,ʔ_ 		aang [aːŋ] /k,kh,ng,ʔ_
ang [ɐŋ] /h_ 		ang [aŋ] /k,kh_

ên [en] /h_
in [in] /ʔ_

en [ən] /k,kh_

in [in] /h,ʔ_

yau [joː] au [oː] yeong [jʌŋ]

also aeng [ɛŋ] /kh,h,ʔ_

anh [ajŋ]
but oanh [wajŋ] (鶯) 		hing
庚三開 i̯ɒng jæng iajŋ P ing [iɪŋ]
but in [in] (皿) 		LIT
ing [ɪŋ]
COL
eng [ɛːŋ] 		in [in], iang [iaŋ]
but ên [en] (盟皿) 		in [in]
but en [ən] (盟) 		yau [joː] ei [eː] yeong [jʌŋ] inh [ɪjŋ]

ênh [əjŋ] /_3
also anh [ajŋ] (命)

ing
ajŋ SR eng [ɤŋ] aang [aːŋ] ên [en], ang [aŋ] an [ã] yau [joː] ei [eː] aeng [ɛŋ] inh [ɪjŋ] ing
iajŋ K ing [iɪŋ] LIT
ing [ɪŋ]
COL
eng [ɛːŋ] 		in [in], iang [iaŋ] in [in] yau [joː] ei [eː] yeong [jʌŋ] anh [ajŋ]

inh [ɪjŋ] /k,g_13
ênh [əjŋ] /ng_ (迎)

eeing
清三開 i̯äng j(i)eng jiajŋ P ing [iɪŋ]
but in [in] (聘) 		LIT
ing [ɪŋ]
COL
eng [ɛːŋ] 		in [in]
but iang [iaŋ] (餅名) 		in [in] yau [joː] ei [eː] yeong [jʌŋ] inh [ɪjŋ] hing, (m)ung
iajŋ l ing [iɪŋ] LIT
ing [ɪŋ]
COL
eng [ɛːŋ] 		iang [iaŋ] in [in] yau [joː] ei [eː] yeong [jʌŋ] anh [ajŋ], inh [ɪjŋ] ing
TR eng [ɤŋ]
but en [ən] (貞) 		ing [ɪŋ] en [ən] en [ən] yau [joː] ei [eː] yeong [jʌŋ] inh [ɪjŋ] ing
SY eng [ɤŋ] LIT
ing [ɪŋ]
COL
eng [ɛːŋ] 		en [ən], ang [aŋ] en [ən] yau [joː] ei [eː] eong [ʌŋ] inh [ɪjŋ]

anh [ajŋ] /sy,zy_

ing
S ing [iɪŋ] LIT
ing [ɪŋ]
COL
eng [ɛːŋ] 		in [in], iang [iaŋ] in [in] yau [joː] ei [eː] eong [ʌŋ] inh [ɪjŋ]

anh [ajŋ] /tsh_

ing
jiajŋ K ing [iɪŋ] LIT
ing [ɪŋ]
COL
eng [ɛːŋ] 		in [in], iang [iaŋ] in [in] yau [joː] ei [eː] yeong [jʌŋ] inh [ɪjŋ]

anh [ajŋ] /ʔ_

eeing
青四開 ieng eng jiajŋ P ing [iɪŋ] ing [ɪŋ] in [in], ên [en] in [in] yau [joː] ei [eː] yeong [jʌŋ] inh [ɪjŋ] ing
iajŋ T,l ing [iɪŋ] LIT
ing [ɪŋ]
COL
eng [ɛːŋ] 		in [in], ên [en]

in [in], ang [aŋ] /l_

in [in] yau [joː] ei [eː] yeong [jʌŋ] inh [ɪjŋ] ing
S ing [iɪŋ] LIT
ing [ɪŋ]
COL
eng [ɛːŋ] 		iang [iaŋ], ên [en]
in [in] yau [joː] ei [eː] eong [ʌŋ] inh [ɪjŋ]

anh [ajŋ] /tsh_

ing
jiajŋ K ing [iɪŋ] ing [ɪŋ] in [in], iang [iaŋ] in [in] yau [joː] ei [eː] yeong [jʌŋ] inh [ɪjŋ]

anh [ajŋ] /kh_

ing

梗攝（開口入聲） Geng She (Kaikou, Plosive Coda)

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
陌二開 ɒk æk aːjk P LIT
o [uo]
COL
ai [ai] (伯百拍白) 		aak [aːk] /p,ph,b_
ak [ɐk] /m_ 		ag [ak], og [ok] aq [aʔ] yaku [jaku] aku [aku] aek [ɛk]

some ak [ak]

ach [ajk] ay(!)
TR LIT
e [ɤ]
and onset may be
plain alveolar (澤擇)
COL
ai [ai] (宅) 		aak [aːk] êd [et] aq [aʔ], eq [əʔ] yaku [jaku] aku [aku] aek [ɛk], yaek [jɛk] ach [ajk] ay(!)
SR LIT
e [ɤ]
and onset may be
plain alveolar (嘖)
COL
ai [ai] (窄) 		aak [aːk] ag [ak] aq [aʔ] yaku [jaku] aku [aku] aek [ɛk]
but ak [ak] (窄岝) 		ach [ajk] ay(!)
jaːjk K e [ɤ]
but ia [iɑ] (嚇) 		aak [aːk] ag [ak] aq [aʔ] yaku [jaku] aku [aku] yeok [jʌk] /k,x,h_

aek [ɛk] /kh,ng_

ach [ajk] yay(!)
麥二開 ɛk ɛk aːjk P LIT
o [uo]
COL
ai [ai] (擘麥脈) 		aak [aːk] /p,ph,b_
ak [ɐk] /m_ 		ag [ak] aq [aʔ] yaku [jaku] aku [aku] yeok [jʌk]

aek [ɛk] /m_

ach [ajk] ay(!)
TR COL
ai [ai] (摘) 		aak [aːk] ag [ak] aq [aʔ] yaku [jaku] aku [aku] yeok [jʌk]
but aek [ɛk] (宅) 		ich [ɪjk] ay(!)
SR LIT
e [ɤ]
and onset is
plain alveolar (責策冊)
COL
ai [ai] (債??) 		aak [aːk] ag [ak],
êd [et],
id [it] 		aq [aʔ]

eq [əʔ] /tsr_

yaku [jaku] aku [aku] aek [ɛk] ach [ajk] ay(!)
jaːjk K e [ɤ] aak [aːk] ag [ak]
but êd [et] (革) 		eq [əʔ]
but aq [aʔ] (隔膈) 		yaku [jaku] aku [aku] yeok [jʌk]
but gyeok [kjʌk] (繳)

aek [ɛk] /ʔ_

ach [ajk] yay(!)
陌三開 i̯ɒk jæk iajk P i [i] ik [ɪk] id [it] iq [iɪʔ] yaku [jaku] eki [eki] ak [ak] (欂)

yeok [jʌk] (碧)

ich [ɪjk] i/ay
K i [i]
but ü [y] (劇) 		gik [kɪk] < k_
kwik [kʷʰɪk] < kh_
kek [kʰɛːk] < g_
jik [jɪk] < ng_
but gwik [kʷɪk] (隙虩) 		iag [iak]
but id [it] (隙) 		iq [iɪʔ]
but ioq [ioʔ],
iuq [yɪʔ] (屐) 		yaku [jaku] eki [eki] euk [ɯk]

yeok [jʌk] /ng_

ich [ɪjk] i/yay
昔三開 i̯äk j(i)ek jiajk P i [i] ik [ɪk] id [it] iq [iɪʔ] yaku [jaku] eki [eki] yeok [jʌk] ich [ɪjk] i
iajk TR i [ʅ] aak [aːk] eq [əʔ] yaku [jaku] eki [eki] yeok [jʌk] ich [ɪjk] i
SY i [ʅ] ek [ɛːk]
but ik [ɪk] (適斥) 		ag [ak]
but ed [ət] (適斥) 		aq [aʔ]
but eq [əʔ] (適) 		yaku [jaku] eki [eki] eok [ʌk] ich [ɪjk] i
S i [i] ik [ɪk] id [it] iq [iɪʔ] yaku [jaku] eki [eki] eok [ʌk] ich [ɪjk] i
jiajk K i [i] ik [ɪk] id [it] iq [iɪʔ] yaku [jaku] eki [eki] ik [ik] /ʔ_

yeok [jʌk] /y_
but aek [ɛk] (腋掖液)

ich [ɪjk] eei
錫四開 iek ek jiajk P i [i] ik [ɪk] id [it] iq [iɪʔ] yaku [jaku] eki [eki] yeok [jʌk] ich [ɪjk] i
iajk T,l i [i] ik [ɪk] id [it] iq [iɪʔ] yaku [jaku] eki [eki] yeok [jʌk] ich [ɪjk] i
S i [i] ik [ɪk] id [it] iq [iɪʔ] yaku [jaku] eki [eki] eok [ʌk] ich [ɪjk] i
jiajk K i [i] ik [ɪk] id [it] iq [iɪʔ] yaku [jaku] eki [eki] yeok [jʌk]
but ik [ik] (鷁喫) 		ich [ɪjk] eei

梗攝（合口） Geng She (Hekou)

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
庚二合 wɒng wæng waːjŋ K uang [uɑŋ]
but eng [ɤŋ] (橫) 		gwong [kʷɔːŋ] < k_
wong [wɔːŋ] < x,h_
but waang [waːŋ] (橫)
and hung [hʊŋ] (黌)
and kwong [kʷʰɔːŋ] (礦) 		uang [uaŋ]
but ang [aŋ] (横) 		uaon [uɑ̃]
but uan [uã] (横) 		wau [oː] wau [oː] wang [waŋ],
oeng [weŋ]

yeong [jʌŋ] /ʔ_

oang/(q)uang [waŋ] ung
耕二合 wɛng wɛng waːjŋ K ung [ʊŋ] gwang [kʷɐŋ] < x_
wang [wɐŋ] < h,ʔ_ 		ang [aŋ]
but ên [en] (宏) 		on [oŋ] wau [oː] wau [oː] oeng [weŋ]

ong [oŋ] /ʔ_

oanh [wajŋ] ung
庚三合 i̯wɒng jwæng yajŋ K iong [yʊŋ]
and rong [ɻʊŋ] < y_1 (榮)
but ing [iɪŋ] (憬瑩) 		ing [ɪŋ] in [in] /k_
iung [iuŋ] /x_
iun [iun] /h_
but iung [iuŋ] (榮) 		ion [ioŋ]
in [in] /k_ 		yau [joː] ei [eː] yeong [jʌŋ] oanh [wajŋ] /ʔ_

inh [ɪjŋ] /h_
uynh [wɪjŋ] /x_

eeung (yeeung)
清三合 i̯wäng jw(i)eng yajŋ s ing [iɪŋ] ing [ɪŋ] yau [joː] ei [eː] eong [ʌŋ] uynh [wɪjŋ] eeung
jyajŋ K ing [iɪŋ]
but iong [yʊŋ] (瓊) 		ing [ɪŋ] ên [en], iun [iun]
but in [in], iang [iaŋ] (營) 		in [in]
but ion [ioŋ] (瓊) 		yau [joː] ei [eː] yeong [jʌŋ] uynh [wɪjŋ]

inh [ɪjŋ] /y_

eeung
青四合 iweng weng jyajŋ K iong [yʊŋ]
but ing [iɪŋ] (熒螢滎) 		ing [ɪŋ] in [in] ion [ioŋ] yau [joː] ei [eː] yeong [jʌŋ] uynh [wɪjŋ] eeung (/eeing)
陌二合 wɒk wæk waːjk nr uo [uo] ok [ɔːk] way
K uo [uo] waak [waːk] < x
wok [wɔːk] < h_
gwik [kʷɪk] < k_ (虢) 		oek [wek] quach [kwajk] < k_ way
麥二合 wɛk wɛk waːjk K uo [uo]
but ua [uɑ] (劃) 		gwok [kʷɔːk] < k_

waak [waːk] < h_
but wok [wɔːk] (獲)

ag [ak]

uêd [uet] /k_

oq [oʔ],
uaq [uaʔ],
ueq [uəʔ] 		waku [aku], oku [oku]

waku [waku] < h_

waku [aku],
yaku [jaku] 		oek [wek] quăc [kwăk] < k_

hoach [hwajk] < h_

way
陌三合 i̯wɒk jwæk yajk ʔ huo [xuo] (擭) wok [wɔːk] < ʔ_ yaku [jaku] weki [eki] wak [wak] oach [wajk] (ywi? ue?)
昔三合 i̯wäk jwiek jyajk y yi [ji] (役疫) ik [ɪk] id [it] ioq [ioʔ], iuq [yɪʔ] yaku [jaku] weki [eki] yeok [jʌk] ich [ɪjk] ywi (y+wi)
錫四合 iwek wek jyajk K ü [y] gwik [kʷɪk] yaku [jaku] weki [eki] yeok [jʌk] (ywi? ue?)

江攝 Jiang She

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
江二開 ång æwng aːwŋ P ang [ɑŋ] ong [ɔːŋ] ang ong [oŋ]
but ung [uŋ] (棒) 		aon [ɑ̃] ou [oː] au [oː] ang [aŋ] ang [aŋ] ang
TR uang [wɑŋ] oeng [œːŋ] ong, ang, ng ong [oŋ] aon [ɑ̃] ou [oː] au [oː] ang [aŋ] ang [aŋ] wang
SR uang [wɑŋ] oeng [œːŋ] ong, ang,
ng, (iang) 		ung [uŋ] aon [ɑ̃] ou [oː] au [oː] ang [aŋ] ong [awŋ] wang
jaːwŋ K iang [jɑŋ]
but ang [ɑŋ] (扛缸港) 		ong [ɔːŋ] ong, ang, ng,
(iuⁿ/ioⁿ/iauⁿ) 		ong [oŋ] aon [ɑ̃] ou [oː] au [oː] ang [aŋ] ang [aŋ]

ông [əwŋ] /kh_

yang
覺二開 åk æwk aːwk P LIT

o [uo]
but u [u] (朴)
COL
ao [ɑu] (剝雹) or iao [iɑu] (朴)

ok [ɔːk] ak, ok,
oh [oʔ],
(au(h)) 		og [ok] oq [oʔ] oku [oku] aku [aku] ak [ak] ac [ak] aw
TR LIT

uo [uo]

oek [œːk] (涿啄琢卓桌)

or ok [ɔːk] (擢濯)
or uk [ʊk] (濁鐲)

ok, oh [oʔ] og [ok] oq [oʔ] aku [aku] aku [aku] ak [ak] ac [ak] waw
SR LIT

uo [uo]

ok [ɔːk] (朔欶)

or uk [ʊk] (捉)

ok, (iok) og [ok] oq [oʔ] aku [aku] aku [aku] ak [ak] ac [ak] waw
jaːwk K LIT

üe [yɛ]
but iao [iɑu] (殼)
uo [uo] / ʔ_
COL
iao [iɑu] (角)
and e [ɤ] (殼)

ok [ɔːk]

ak [ɐk] < ʔ_

ak, ok,
oh [oʔ] 		og [ok] oq [oʔ]
but ioq [ioʔ],
iuq [yɪʔ] (確珏) 		aku [aku] aku [aku] ak [ak] ac [ak]
but oc [awk] (學) 		yaw

通攝（舒聲） Tong She (Nasal Coda)

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
東一開 ung uwng əwŋ P eng [ɤŋ] ung [ʊŋ] ung [uŋ] on [oŋ] u [u] ou [oː] ong [oŋ] ông [əwŋ] ung
T,l ong [ʊŋ] ung [ʊŋ] ung [uŋ] on [oŋ] uu [uː]

u [u] /l_

ou [oː] ong [oŋ] ông [əwŋ] ung
S ong [ʊŋ] ung [ʊŋ] ung [uŋ] on [oŋ] u [u] ou [oː] ong [oŋ] ông [əwŋ] ung
K ong [ʊŋ]

weng [ʋɤŋ] /ʔ_

ung [ʊŋ]
but jung [jʊŋ] (翁) 		ung [uŋ] on [oŋ] u [u] ou [oː] ong [oŋ] ông [əwŋ] ung
冬一開 uong owng əwŋ T ong [ʊŋ] ung [ʊŋ] ung [uŋ] on [oŋ] ou [oː] ou [oː] ong [oŋ] ông [əwŋ] ung
S ong [ʊŋ] ung [ʊŋ] ung [uŋ] on [oŋ] o [o] ou [oː] ong [oŋ] ông [əwŋ] ung
k ong [ʊŋ] ung [ʊŋ] ung [uŋ] on [oŋ] o [o] ou [oː] ong [oŋ] ông [əwŋ] ung
東三開 i̯ung juwng iwŋ/

məwŋ

F eng [ɤŋ] ung [ʊŋ] ung [uŋ] on [oŋ] u [u], uu [uː] (y)ou [(j)oː] ung [uŋ]
but ong [oŋ] (鳳賵)

ong [oŋ] /m_

ung [ʊwŋ],
ương [ɨə̯ŋ] /b_

ong [awŋ] /p,ph_
ông [əwŋ] /m_

(f)ung
l ong [ʊŋ] ung [ʊŋ] ung [uŋ] on [oŋ] u [u], uu [uː] yuu [juː] yung [juŋ] ung [ʊwŋ] eeung
TR ong [ʊŋ] ung [ʊŋ] ung [uŋ] on [oŋ] yuu [juː], yu [ju] yuu [juː] yung [juŋ] ung [ʊwŋ]
but ong [awŋ] (仲) 		ung, eeung
əwŋ dzr ong [ʊŋ] ung [ʊŋ] ung [uŋ] on [oŋ] uu [uː] yuu [juː] ung [uŋ], ong [oŋ] ung [ʊwŋ] ung
iwŋ SY ong [ʊŋ] ung [ʊŋ] ung [uŋ]

yung [iuŋ] < ny_

on [oŋ]

ion [ioŋ] /ny_

u [u], uu [uː],
yu [ju] 		yuu [juː] ung [uŋ] ung [ʊwŋ] ung
S ong [ʊŋ] ung [ʊŋ] iung [iuŋ] on [oŋ] u [u], uu [uː],
yu [ju] 		yuu [juː] ung [uŋ] ung [ʊwŋ] eeung
K ong [ʊŋ]

iong [yʊŋ] /g,h_ (窮雄熊)
rong [ɻʊŋ] < y_1 (融)

ung [ʊŋ]

jung [jʊŋ] < y_

iung [iuŋ] ion [ioŋ]

on [ioŋ] /kh,g_

u [u] , uu [uː]

(y)u [(j)u] /y_

yuu [juː] ung [uŋ]

yung [juŋ] /y_

ung [ʊwŋ] eeung
鍾三開 i̯wong jowng ywŋ F eng [ɤŋ] ung [ʊŋ] ung [uŋ] on [oŋ] u [u], uu [uː] ou [oː] ong [oŋ] ong [awŋ]

ung [ʊwŋ] /b_

(f)ung
l ong [ʊŋ] ung [ʊŋ] iung [iuŋ] on [oŋ] yuu [juː] you [joː] ong [oŋ], yong [joŋ] ung [ʊwŋ]
but ong [awŋ] (龍) 		eeung
TR ong [ʊŋ] ung [ʊŋ] ung [uŋ] on [oŋ]

ion [ioŋ] /nr_

yuu [juː] you [joː] yong [joŋ]
but yung [juŋ] (重) 		ung [ʊwŋ] ung, eeung
SY ong [ʊŋ] ung [ʊŋ] ung [uŋ]

yung [iuŋ] < ny_

on [oŋ]

also ion [ioŋ] /ny_

u [u], yu [ju] you [joː] ong [oŋ]
but ung [uŋ] (衝)

ung [juŋ] /ny_

ung [ʊwŋ] ung
S ong [ʊŋ] ung [ʊŋ] iung [iuŋ] on [oŋ] u [u], yu [ju] you [joː] ong [oŋ] ung [ʊwŋ] eeung
K ong [ʊŋ]

iong [yʊŋ] /x,ʔ,y_
rong [ɻʊŋ] < y_1 (容)

ung [ʊŋ]

jung [jʊŋ] < ʔ,y_

iung [iuŋ] ion [ioŋ]

on [oŋ] < k,kh,g_

u [u], uu [uː]

also yo [jo] /ʔ_

you [joː] ong [oŋ]

yong [joŋ] /y_
yung [juŋ] /x_

ung [ʊwŋ] eeung

通攝（入聲） Tong She (Plosive Coda)

Rime Middle Chinese C_ Mandarin
Beijing 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan
Taiwan 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Wu
Shanghai 		Japanese Korean Vietnamese Phags-Pa
(Old Mandarin)
Karlgren Baxter LMC Go-On Kan-On
屋一開 uk uwk əwk P u [u] uk [ʊk] ug [uk] oq [oʔ] oku [oku] oku [oku] ok [ok] ôc [əwk] u
T,l u [u] uk [ʊk] ug [uk] oq [oʔ] oku [oku] oku [oku] ok [ok] ôc [əwk] u
S u [u] uk [ʊk] ug [uk] oq [oʔ] oku [oku] oku [oku] ok [ok] ôc [əwk] u
K u [u] uk [ʊk] ug [uk] oq [oʔ] oku [oku]

woku [oku] /ʔ_

oku [oku]

woku [oku] /ʔ_

ok [ok] ôc [əwk] u
沃一開 uok owk əwk P u [u] uk [ʊk] ug [uk] oq [oʔ] oku [oku] oku [oku] ok [ok] ôc [əwk] u
T,l u [u] uk [ʊk] ug [uk] oq [oʔ] oku [oku] oku [oku] ok [ok] ôc [əwk] u
S u [u] uk [ʊk] ug [uk] oq [oʔ] oku [oku] oku [oku] ok [ok] ôc [əwk] u
K u [u]
but uo [uo] (沃) 		uk [ʊk]
but juk [jʊk] (沃) 		ug [uk]
but vog [vok] (沃) 		oq [oʔ] oku [oku]

woku [oku] /ʔ_

oku [oku]

yoku [joku] /ʔ_

ok [ok] ôc [əwk] u
屋三開 i̯uk juwk iwk/

məwk

F u [u] uk [ʊk] ug [uk] oq [oʔ] uku [uku]
oku [oku] /m_ 		uku [uku]
oku [oku] /m_ 		ok [ok] uc [ʊwk] (f)u
l LIT
u [u]

COL
iou [iou] (六)

uk [ʊk] iug [iuk] oq [oʔ] oku [oku] iku [iku] yuk [juk] uc [ʊwk] eeu
TR LIT
u [u]

COL
iou [iou] (軸)

uk [ʊk] ug [uk] oq [oʔ]
but ioq [ioʔ],
iuq [yɪʔ] (軸) 		iku [iku] iku [iku] yuk [juk] uc [ʊwk] eeu
əwk SR u [u]
but uo [uo] (縮) 		uk [ʊk] ug [uk] oq [oʔ] uku [uku] yuku [juku] uk [uk]
but ok [ok] (矗) 		uc [ʊwk] u
iwk SY LIT
u [u]

COL
iou [iou] (粥熟肉)

uk [ʊk] ug [uk]

iug [iuk] /ny_

oq [oʔ]

ioq [ioʔ] /ny_

uku [uku]
iku [iku] /ny_ 		yuku [juku]
iku [iku] /ny_ 		uk [uk] uc [ʊwk] eeu
S LIT
u [u]

COL
iou [iou] (宿)

uk [ʊk] iug [iuk] oq [oʔ] uku [uku] yuku [juku] uk [uk] uc [ʊwk] eeu
K ü [y] uk [ʊk] iug [iuk] ioq [ioʔ], iuq [yɪʔ] iku [iku] iku [iku] uk [uk]

yuk [juk] /y_

uc [ʊwk] eeu
燭三開 i̯wok jowk ywk F u [u] uk [ʊk] ug [uk] oq [oʔ] oku [oku] yoku [joku] ok [ok] uc [ʊwk] (f)u
l u [u]
but ü [y] (綠) 		uk [ʊk] iug [iuk] oq [oʔ] oku [oku] yoku [joku] ok [ok] uc [ʊwk] eeu
TR u [u] uk [ʊk] og [ok] (亍) oq [oʔ] oku [oku] yoku [joku] yok [jok] uc [ʊwk] eeu
SY u [u] uk [ʊk] ug [uk]

yug [iuk] < ny_

oq [oʔ]

also ioq [ioʔ] /ny_

oku [oku] yoku [joku] ok [ok] uc [ʊwk] eeu
S u [u]
but ü [y] (續) 		uk [ʊk] iug [iuk] oq [oʔ] oku [oku] yoku [joku] ok [ok] uc [ʊwk] eeu
K ü [y] uk [ʊk]

juk [jʊk] < ng_

iug [iuk] ioq [ioʔ] oku [oku]

yoku [joku] /y_

yoku [joku] uk [uk] /k,g,x_

ok [ok] /kh,ng_
yok [jok] /y_

uc [ʊwk] eeu

Tones

Middle Chinese is traditionally described as having four tones. However, the Ru tone (入聲) is in complementary distribution with each of the other three tones. If MC were a modern language, a modern linguist might analyze it as an allophone of one of the other tones:

Open syllable Closed syllable with nasal coda Closed syllable with plosive coda
Ping/level tone (平聲) Yes Yes No
Shang/rising tone (上聲) Yes Yes No
Qu/departing tone (去聲) Yes Yes No
Ru/entering tone (入聲) No No Yes

In MC, Ping was much more common than each of the other three tones.

Karlgren uses : and - while Baxter uses X and H for the Shang and Qu tones. (Ping is left unmarked and Ru is of course self-evident.)

Near the end of, or after, MC, the tones split into high and low varieties based on the onset of the syllable. Syllables with voiceless onsets became high, while syllables with voiced onsets became low. In most Sinitic languages, the voice distinction was then lost, and the high/low distinction became phonemic for some or all tones. Whenever this happened, the high varieties come to be called called "Yin" (Yin Ping, Yin Shang, Yin Qu, Yin Ru) while the low varieties are called "Yang" (Yang Ping, Yang Shang, Yang Qu, Yang Ru). Here is an idealized illustration of how the system would work for a given tone (aspiration is ignored in this illustration for simplicity):

Before After
pan (P) pan (YinP)
man (P) man (YangP)
ban (P) pan (YangP)

The vast majority of languages and dialects today have separate Yin Ping and Yang Ping tones. Only some southern languages and dialects have separate Yin Qu and Yang Qu tones. It is even rarer to have separate Yin Shang and Yang Shang tones; instead, there is a widespread tendency to move what would be Yang Shang syllables, beginning with obstruent onsets, into the Qu tone. Taking the dialect of Changsha as an example:

MC Changsha
pan (S) pan (S)
man (S) man (S)
ban (S) pan (YangQ)
pan (Q) pan (YinQ)
man (Q) man (YangQ)
ban (Q) pan (YangQ)

The Ru tone deserves special mention, because with a few exceptions (e.g. Changsha, Wenzhou), it lived and died with the plosive codas that it was associated with. In southern languages that maintain plosive codas, the Ru tone survives (though, as in MC, the Ru tone, or Ru tones where the tone has split, is/are usually associated exclusively with plosive codas, and can therefore be analyzed as an allophone or allophones of other tones.) On the other hand, plosive codas have dropped away completely in most dialects of Mandarin, and syllables with Ru tone were reassigned to other tones.

Reconstructions are omitted from the following since no one seems to be attempting it (??).

  • P = MC unvoiced obstruent onset
  • M = MC sonorant onset
  • B = MC voiced obstruent onset
Tone Mandarin Jin
Taiyuan 		Yue
Canton 		Minnan Mindong
Fuzhou 		Hakka
Moiyan 		Gan
Nanchang 		Wu Xiang
Changsha 		Vietnamese
Beijing Jinan Xi'an Wuhan Chengdu Hefei Yangzhou Amoy Teochew Suzhou Shanghai Wenzhou
平
Ping 		P 55 213 21 55 44 212 21 11 55 44 33 55 44 42 44 52 44 33 ngang
M 35 42 24 213 31 55 34 21 24 55 53 11 24 224 YangQ 31 13
B huyền
上
Shang 		P 214 55 53 42 53 24 42 53 35 53 52 33 31 213 52 YinQ 45 41 hỏi
M 23 COLYangQ
LITYinS 		COLYangS
LITYinS 		COLYangQ
LITYinS 		YinP or YinS YangQ YangQ 34 ngã
B 51 21 55 35 13 53 55 45 COLYangS
LITYangQ 		YangQ 35 YangQ COLYinP
LITQ 		YangQ YangQ nặng
去
Qu 		P 33 21 213 213 52 55 412 34 42 45 sắc
M 22 22 11 242 21 231 14 22 21 nặng
B
入
Ru 		P Random YinP YinP YangP YangP 4 4 2 33(long)
5(short) 		32 11 24 1 5 4 44 323 24 sắc
M Q Q 22 4 4 5 5 2 23 24 212 nặng
B YangP YangP YangP 54

Resources

Middle Chinese

Modern Chinese

Sino-Xenic

Other correspondence lists

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Bernhard Karlgren, also known as 高本漢.
  2. ↑ William Baxter.
  3. ↑ Values suggested by Pan Wuyun (潘悟雲).
  4. ↑ The hanja and prescriptive han'gŭl are spellings from the Dongguk Jeongun (東國正韻 동국정운).
  5. ↑ Late Middle Chinese; reconstruction from Edwin G. Pulleyblank (蒲立本).
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