Liwadi: Syntax

THE GRAMMAR OF LIWADI,

صا کهنۄم ىاخکۄر نه صۆ کهنۄم نه صۆ ليواظ

sa Kenom Yaxkor ne sa Kenom ne su Liwad

Table of Phonemes

IPA	/h/	/χ/	/ɣ/	/w/	/o/	/u/	/k/	/g/	/ŋ/	/t/	/d/	/θ/	/ð/	/p/	/b/	/ɸ/	/β/	/s/	/z/	/j/	/i/	/e/	/ɛ/	/ä/	/n/	/m/	/l/	/ɾ/	/ʔ/
Latin	H h	ḳ	ġ	W w	O o	U u	K k	G g	Ń ń	T t	D d	ṭ	ḍ	P p	B b	ṗ	ḃ	S s	Z z	Y y	I i	E e	ė	A a	N n	M m	L l	R r	ʻ
Arabic	ح	خ	ݗ	و	ۄ	ۆ	ک	ݢ	گ	ط	ظ	د	ذ	ٮ	ﺏ	ڡ	ڢ	ص	ض	ی	ي	ه		ا	ن	م	ل	ر	ع
Name	Ha حا	Ḳa خا	Ġa ݗا	Wa وا	Wo وۄ	Wu وۆ	Kaf کا	Gaf ݢا	Ńaf گا	Ta طا	Da ظا	Ṭa دا	Ḍa ذا	Pa ٮا	Ba با	Ṗa ڡا	Ḃa ڢا	Sa صا	Za ضا	Ya ىا	Yi ىي	Ye ىه	Yė ىٰ	Alif ا	Nun نۆن	Mim ميم	Lam لام	Ra را	ʻan عان

• The letters in red are those used as the numerals in the octal system, e.g., وع, wannam, 16.

Grammar - Kenom Yaxkor کهنۄم ىاخکۄر

Syllables, Accent and Punctuation

• 001. All basic words (lemmas) end in a consonant with the exception of the prepositions (VCV, CV or VV), the articles (CV), and (he), and or (u).
• 002. The accent of disyllabic words falls on the ultimate syllable.
• 003. The accent remains on this ultima when prefixes or suffixes are added.
• 004. There are no diphthongs.

Word Order - Likad Nigup ليکاظ نيݢۆٮ

• 005. Liwadi word order is SOV, subject-object-verb.
• 006. The indirect object precedes the direct object:

Em ae su in sa ruzad-na meńama.

I gave the egg to the man.

Em	ae	su	in	sa	ruzad-na	meńam-a
I	to	the	man	the	egg-OBJ	give\PST\IND-3p

• 007. The genitive noun follows the head noun:

Sa bapom ne tu in yasaru.

The man's throat hurts.

Sa	bapom	ne	tu	in	yasar-u
the	throat	of	the	man	hurt\NPST\IND-3p

• 008. Adjectives and determiners precede the nouns they qualify.
• 009. The adjective follows the standard of comparison.
• 010. The adjective precedes the dependent verb.
• 011. Adverbs follow the verbs they modify.
• 012. Adverbials of time precede those of space.

Verbs - Yipod Liḳdar ىيٮۄظ ليخظار

• 013. Verbs are a class of words that convey an action (bring, read, walk, run, learn), an occurrence (happen, become), or a state of being (be, exist, stand).
• 014. Most Liwadi verbs consist of what is called a triliteral stem, three consonants, CVCVC. Prefixes, suffixes and infixes specify the meaning of the verb. A few verbs have the form VCVC.
• 015. Tense is a grammatical category which expresses the time at which a state or action denoted by a verb occurs. There are two tenses in Liwadi, non-past (NPST) and past (PST).
• 016. The non-past tense is indicated by a in the first vowel position: maʻak, fall. This form is the lemma.
• 017. The past tense is indicated be e in the first vowel position: meʻak, fell.
• 018. Mood is a grammatical category by which the speaker expresses his attitude toward what he is saying.
• 019. The vowel in the second vowel position indicates the mood.
• 020. The indicative mood (IND) is indicated by a in the second vowel position: maʻak, fall.
• 021. The subjunctive mood (SBJ) is indicated by e in the second vowel position: maʻek, may fall.
• 022. The imperative mood (IMP) is indicated by i in the second vowel position: maʻik, fall!
• 023. This same form is used for the cohortative (COH) and jussive (JUS) moods with the appropriate pronoun following in the objective form:

anip es-na, Let him sing.

anip emer-na, Let's sing.

• 024. The Liwadi verb is marked for person, but not for number. The accent remains on the second syllable, the penultimate: nadada, I/we swim; nadadi, you (sg./pl) swim; nadadu, he/they swim.
• 025. The passive (PAS) form of the verb is formed by prefixing the verb with gė- and adding the object suffix to the subject:

Sa gab-na gėrenaku.

The fish was cooked.

sa	gab-na	gė-renak-u
the	fish-OBJ	PAS-cook\PST\IND-3

Sa ikam-na gėnapaʻu.

The tree is burned.

Sa	ikam-na	gė-napaʻ-u
the	tree-OBJ	PAS-burn\NPST\IND-3

If there is no initial consonant, then only g is prefixed:

Su am-na gadaru.

The mother is loved.

Su	am-na	g-adar-u
the	mother-OBJ	PAS-love\NPST\IND-3

• 026. The non-past infinitive is formed by prefixing mė- to the non-past indicative form: mėpasad, to see; mėyaʻaʻ, to bend.

The past infinitive is formed by prefixing mė to the past indicative form:

mėpesad, to have seen; mėyeʻaʻ, to have bent.

The passive infinitive is formed by prefixing both mė- and gė-.

mėgėpesad, to have been seen; mėgėyeʻaʻ, to have been bent.

• 027. A verbal noun, or gerund (GER), is indicated by o in the second vowel position: pazad, want; pazod, wanting.

Ya nadod ya em ńeṗʻor-na yawayu.

Swimming strengthens my limbs.

Ya	nadod	ya	em	ńeṗʻor-na	yaway-u
INDEF	swim\GER	INDEF	my	limb-OBJ	strengthen\NPST\IND-3

• 028. Sentence negation (NEG) is indicated by the use of the word wa:

Em adara wa, I do not love.

• 029. A question (Q) is indicated by the use of the final particle ha:

Em eń-na adara, I love you.

Em eń-na adara ha?, Do I love you?

If an affirmative answer is expected, an affirmative statement is made followed by the phrase mubam ha, true?

Su nulen wapayu, mubam ha?

The sun is shining, isn't it?

Su nulen wepayu, mubam ha?

The sun was shining, wasn't it?

If a negative answer is expected, a negative statement is made followed by the phrase mubam ha, true?

Su nulen wapadu wa, mubam ha?

The sun isn't shining, is it?

Su nulen wepadu wa, mubam ha?

The sun wasn't shining, was it?

• 030. Dependent verbs, such as infinitives and gerunds, precede the verb or adjective upon which they are dependent:

Em ya yuʻag-na mėmabas ʻedaga.

I was afraid to touch a toad.

Em	ya	yuʻag-na	mė-mabas	ʻedag-a
I	INDEF	toad-OBJ	INF-touch	fear\PST\IND-3

Es mėmanas pazadu.

He wants to go.

Es	mė-manas	pazad-u
he	INF-go	want\NPST\IND-3

A direct object is placed before the infinitive:

Em es-na mėmanas pezadu.

I wanted him to go.

Em	es-na	mė-manas	pezad-u
I	he-OBJ	INF-god	want\PST\IND-3

• 031. Verbs may be formed from perceptible nouns and from adjectives by using them as verbs: ʻipay, flower:

Su riṗgir aranulen ʻepayu.

The roses bloomed yesterday.

Su	riṗg-ir	aranulen	ʻepay-u
the	rose-PL	yesterday	bloom\PST\IND-3

If the adjective is of the form CVC, then the verb takes the form VCVC: pas, bad; apas, be bad.

• 032. Transitive verbs may be formed from adjectives by treating them as verbs: puyar, wide:

Eser sa yurin-na payaru.

They are widening the road.

Eser	sa	yurin-na	payar-u
they	the	road-OBJ	wide\NPST\IND-3

Nouns - Nanal Liḳdar نانال ليخظار

• 033. Nouns are a class of words that function as the names of some specific thing or set of things, such as living creatures, objects, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.
• 034. There are no noun classes in Liwadi.
• 035. A noun must be preceded by a determiner or an adjective:

Su in yem ayadu.

The man is here.

Su	in	yem	ayad-u
the	man	here	be\NPST\IND-3

Yu inir yem ayadu.

Men are here.

Yu	in-ir	yem	ayad-u
INDEF	man-PL	here	be\NPST\IND-3

• 036. Plurality (PL) is indicated by deleting the second vowel and placing it after the word with the suffix -r; the plural suffix bears the accent: sa erim, stone; sa ermir, the stones.

If the middle consonant is a stop, it is lenited. This is indicated orthographically with a dot under the consonant: sa medop, the river; sa meḍpor, the rivers; ya medop, a river; ya meḍpor, rivers.

Sa ermir bigak ayadu.

The stones are large.

Sa	erm-ir	bigak	ayad-u
the	stone-PL	large	be\NPST\IND-3

Em sa ermir-na pasada.

I see the stones.

Em	sa	erm-ir-na	pasad-a
I	the	stone-PL-OBJ	see\NPST\IND-3

If the noun is monosyllabic, -Vr is added: gab, fish; gabar, fishes.

If the noun is CVCV, -r is added: yońa, shoulder; yońar, shoulders.

• 037. Possession is indicated by the preposition ne, of:

sa yitoy ne su tikag; the child's smile.

• 038. The particle -na marks the direct object (OBJ) of the verb:

Em su ziʻop-na pasada.

I see the bird.

Em	su	ziʻop-na	pasad-a
I	the	bird-OBJ	see\NPST\IND-3

• 039. Nouns naming a person characterized by an adjective are formed by using the animate definite article: zuʻip, young; su zuʻip, youth; tinam, old; su tinam, elder.
• 040. Abstract nouns (-ty, -ness, -tion, etc.) are derived from adjectives by using the inanimate definite article: yizup, short; sa yizup, shortness.
• 041. Nouns denoting perceptible things are formed from verbs with the syllable structure CiCoC: pataz, bathe; ya pitoz, bath.
• 042. Nouns denoting imperceptible things are formed from verbs with the syllable structure CiCuC: nagap, order; nigup, order.
• 043. A noun may be specified as masculine or feminine by using the words in and min, respectively: ziʻop, bird; minziʻop, hen; inziʻop, cock.
• 044. Nouns may be used to modify other nouns: sa dap turak, the mountain stream.
• 045. Collective nouns are formed from nouns or adjectives by using the word yuraz, group: sa ziʻpor yuraz, the flock of birds; sa gabar yuraz, the school of fish; sa ginńer yuraz, archipelago.
• 046. The diminutive of nouns is formed with the prefix t(ė): in, man; tin, boy; min, woman; tėmin, girl.
• 047. The agent of a verb is formed with the word nuhon, person: bamat, sing; bamat nuhon, singer.

Modifiers - Namod Liḳdar نامۄظ ليخظار

• 048. In Liwadi grammar adjectives, adverbs and determiners are classed together as modifiers.

Adjectives - Kańop Liḳdar کاگۄٮ ليخظار

• 049. Adjectives are a class of words which qualify a noun or noun phrase, giving more information about the object signified.
• 050. Adjectives are placed before the noun: su ńor tin, the good boy.
• 051. The one degree of comparison, known as the comparative (COMP), is formed by reduplication:

idol, red; idolidol, redder, reddest.

putoy, far; putoyputoy, farther, farthest.

• 052. In comparisons than is translated by ini:

Wed ʻipay yidakyidak ini dad ʻipay adaya.

This flower is bluer than that flower

Wed	ʻipay	yidak~yidak	ini	dad	ʻipay	adaya
this	flower	COMP~blue	than	that	FLOWER	be\NPST\IND-3

• 053. Negative comparison is formed with the word ʻeyoń, less: putoy', distant; ʻeyoń putoy, less/least distant.
• 054. The comparison of equality is formed with the conjunction yol, as: idol, red; yol idol, as red:

Wed ʻipay yol idol yol gal ayadu.

This flower is as red as blood.

Wed	ʻipay	yol	idol	yol	gal	ayad-u
this	flower	as	red	as	blood	be-NPST\IND-3

• 055. Participles are a form of a verb that is used to modify a noun, noun phrase, verb, or verb phrase, playing a role similar to an adjective or adverb.
• 056. There are two participles in Liwadi.
  • a. The non-past participle has the form CaCuC: su nadud gab, the swimming fish.
  • b. The past participle has the form CeCuC: sa beńun nipad, the sunken boat.
• 057. Nouns of material may be used like adjectives: sa erim rutiń, the stone house.
• 058. Word negation (NEG) is indicated by the use of the prefix o-: lunań, even; o-lunań, uneven.
• 059. Adjectives with the meaning without are expressed with the preposition isi, without: tidor, hope; isi ya tidor, hopeless.
• 060. Descriptive adjectives are derived from nouns by changing the vowels to o: yisun, anger; yoson, angry.
• 061. Adjectives denoting pertaining to, connected with, belonging to, of the nature of, or characteristic of what is named in the noun or verb root are derived from nouns by changing the vowels to i: soʻek, fog; siʻik, foggy; sataʻ, tire; sitiʻ, tired.

Determiners - Yaros Liḳdar ىارۄص ليخظار

• 062. Determiners are a class of words that serve to express the reference of that noun or noun phrase in the context. They may indicate whether the noun is referring to a definite or indefinite element of a class, to a closer or more distant element, to an element belonging to a specified person or thing, to a particular number or quantity, etc.
• 063. There are three definite articles, the animate su, the inanimate sa, and the proper se: in, man; su in, the man; erem, rock; sa erem, the rock; se Yugun, God.
• 064. There are two indefinite articles, the animate yu and the inanimate ya: min, woman; yu min, a woman; litad, bed; ya litad, a bed.

The indefinite article is also used when no other modifier is present:

yu ʻiṗyar zu sa binel wilam ʻapayu.

Flowers bloom in the rainy season.

yu	ʻiṗy-ar	zu	sa	binel	wilam	ʻapay-u
INDEF	flower-PL	in	the	rain	season	bloom-NPST\IND-3

• 065. Numerals precede the noun in the absence of a determiner:

Tid minir ranaku.

Three women are cooking.

Tid	min-ir	ranak-u
three	woman-PL	cook\NPST\IND-3

They follow the noun if the noun is preceded by a determiner:

Wed minir tid ranaku.

These three women are cooking.

Wed	min-ir	tid	ranak-u
these	woman-PL	three	cook\NPST\IND-3

• 066. The demonstrative determiners are wed, this/these; and dad, that/those, e.g. dad ziʻop, that bird; wed ʻiṗyar, these flowers.
• 067. The possessive determiners are formed by inserting the personal pronoun between the definite article and that which is possessed; the vowel of the pronoun is then elided:

sa 'm tag, my hand; su 'ń bab, your father.

• 068. The elective indefinite determiner is nul, any.
• 069. The assertive indefinite determiner is rag, some.

Numerals - Limor ليمۄر

• 070. Liwadi has an octal numeral system.

Octal Table

1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
hed	wan	kub	toń	pem	ser	yim	nam
9	10	11	12	13	14	15	16
namhed	namwan	namkub	namtoń	nampem	namser	namyim	wannam
17	18	19	20	21	22	23	24
wannamhed	wannamwan	wannamkub	wannamtoń	wannampem	wannamser	wannamyim	kubnam
25	26	27	28	29	30	31	32
kubnamhed	kubnamwan	kubnamkub	kubnamtoń	kubnampem	kubnamser	kubnamyim	tońnam
33	34	35	36	37	38	39	40
tońnamhed	tońnamwan	tońnamkub	tońnamtoń	tońnampem	tońnamser	tońnamyim	pemnam
41	42	43	44	45	46	47	48
pemnamhed	pemnamwan	pemnamkub	pemnamtoń	pemnampem	pemnamser	pemnamyim	sernam
49	50	51	52	53	54	55	56
sernamhed	sernamwan	sernamkub	sernamtoń	sernampem	sernamser	sernamyim	yimnam
57	58	59	60	61	62	63	64
yimnamhed	yimnamwan	yimnamkub	yimnamtoń	yimnampem	yimnamser	yimnamyim	namnam

Liwadi: Dictionaries