Qihep

Qihep (in Qihep: Qīxēp [ˌkʷiːˈxeːp]) is a constructed fantasy language. It is an isolating language and uses a logographic script.

Phonology

Consonants

Consonants
	Bilabial		Labio- dental		Dental		Alveolar		Post- alveolar		Palatal		Velar		Labialized velar		Glottal
Plosive	p	b					t	d					k	g	kʷ		(ʔ)1
Nasal		m		(ɱ)2			n					ɲ		(ŋ)3
Vibrant								r
Fricative			f	v			s		ʃ				x				h
Affricate							ʦ		ʧ	ʤ
Approximants												j		w
Lateral approximants								l

Note:

• [ʔ]¹is not recognised as an independent phoneme but it is inserted between two vowels, or between two identical consonants.

• [ɱ]² and [ŋ]³ are considered as allophones of the normal nasal phonemes in front of [f]/[v] and [k]/[g]/[kʷ] respectively.

Vowels

Vowels
	Front		Near- front		Central		Near- back		Back
Close		i(ː)								u(ː)
Close mid		e(ː)								o(ː)
Mid					ə(ː)
Open					a(ː)

Every vowel can be distinctively short and long.

No dipthongs are allowed. If two vowels are adiacent in a compound word, a glottal stop ([ʔ]) emerges to keep them separated.

Transcription

Qihep uses a logographic script, but it can be transcribed using the Latin script:

Letter

a

ā

b

c

d

e

ē

f

g

ǵ

h

i

ī

j

k

l

m

n

ń

o

ō

p

q

r

s

ś

t

ts

u

ū

v

w

x

y

ȳ

IPA

[a]

[aː]

[b]

[ʧ]

[d]

[e]

[eː]

[f]

[g]

[ʤ]

[h]

[i]

[iː]

[j]

[k]

[l]

[m]

[n]

[ɲ]

[o]

[oː]

[p]

[kʷ]

[r]

[s]

[ʃ]

[t]

[ʦ]

[u]

[uː]

[v]

[w]

[x]

[ə]

[əː]

Transcription in Latin adopts the Qihep use of underline, when a word is written with logograms, which are used for their sound and not for their meaning. Underline is usually meant for foreign names or proper names.

• I am going to go to Rome: ul Rōma fut bim fa vol

Morphology

Typologically speaking, Qihep is an isolating language, that means its words never change nor add any additional ending to show number, gender, tense, aspect, etc.

Example:

We followed that person: Ul la nār vran ta śak fa

Analysing the sentence:

* Ul: means I
* la: it's a grammatical particle which shows the idea of plural
* nār: means that
* vran: means person
* ta: it's a grammatical particle, conveying the idea of past
* śak: means follow
* fa: it's a grammatical particle, conveying the idea of action complete

Grammar roles and complements are conveyed by the position in the sentence, by grammatical particles and by postpositions. Grammatical particles are not strictly needed and can be left out of the sentence if the meaning is clear from the context. For example, in the previous sentence, the particle ta can be easily omitted if it's clear that we are talking about the past.

Even if there is no strict morphology, Qihep words can be compounded to form new words and a complex derivational morphology does exist. For example:

• xep, mouth + svūk, sound → xepsvūk, voice
• troj, to build + -kȳt, noun for the result of the action → trojkȳt, building

Nouns

Nouns do not change for number or for gender.

Nouns denoting humans or animals can be linked to a definite gender by prefixing the terms tan, male or res, female:

• vran, human, person → tanvran, man, resvran, woman.

By reduplicating the nouns we can express the meaning of a collective noun:

• vran, human, person → vranvran, people, population

The particle la can be postponed after the nouns to express plurality, but it conveys also the idea of "many".

• vran(vran) la, many people

Adjectives

Nouns never flect in agreement with the noun they modify and do not change for number or for gender. They are always placed before the noun they modify.

They can be modified by the adverb ply, very.

By reduplicating the adjective we can express an intensive meaning, or roughly the meaning of really.

Comparative and superlative

Comparative forms are expressed in two ways:

1 - by using the reduplicated adjective and marking the second compared object with the postposition fe, with regard to, in relation to

• Ul la fe jūnjūn, I am younger than you

2 - by using the reduplicated adverb ply, very, placed before the adjective. The second compared object is marked with the postposition fe, with regard to, in relation to.

• Rȳs tȳn fe plyply fī, She is taller than him

There is no real distinction between the two ways, and both can be used with no difference in meaning. Compound adjectives and derived adjectives tend to use the second form, while simple and basic adjectives tend to use the first form.

Superlative forms are expressed in the same ways as the comparative forms, with the second compared object is usually ńikmē, ńikvran, everyone, ńikqem, everything, or ńik + any noun.

• Tȳn ńik ul la fe plyply fī, He is the tallest among us

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Pronouns show a limited gender distinction and mandatorily use the grammar particle la for plural if they refer to plural forms.

Person	English	Form	Explanation
1st	I	ul
2nd	you	ma
3rd	he	tȳn	for humans or animals, male or without defining gender
3rd	she	rȳs	for humans or animals, strictly for female
3rd	it	qem	for objects or small animals
3rd	it	do	indicates something undefined, object or idea, which it has already been talked about, aforementioned

When referring to more people or objects, particle la is mandatorily postponed after the pronouns:

• ul, I → ul la, we

Pronouns do not change for case, as they do in English, but they express their role by using the position in the sentence:

• ul tȳn nat piǵ kra, I can't see him
• tȳn ul nat piǵ kra, He can't see me

Possessive pronouns

Possessive pronouns and adjectives do not exist as independent forms. To express their meaning the normal personal pronouns followed by the genitive particle are used:

• ul, I + dī, of = ul dī, my, mine

Example:

• Ul dī suk pūcin, My hair is black

Interrogative pronouns

There are two basic interrogative adjectives and pronouns

Form	English	Explanation
wē	who, which	for humans and animals
wū	what, which, where	for objects and small animals, it can also express location with locative verbs

• Ma wē ta piǵ fa lo, Who did you see?
• Tȳn la wū skyt sty lo, What are they doing?
• Rȳs wū stā sty lo, Where is she?

Other interrogative pronouns are formed by adding specific nouns:

wū + meś, place	= wūmeś	where, in which place
wū + tsēd, time	= wūtsēd	when, in which period
wū + dān, moment	= wūdān	when, in which moment
wū + cin, way	= wūcin	how, in which way
wū + prīc, reason	= wūprīc	why, for which reason
wū + tsel, purpose	= wūtsel	why, for which purpose

Demonstrative pronouns

There are three demonstrative adjectives and pronouns

Form	English	Explanation
tyk	this	for something or somebody near both the listener and the speaker
qē	that	for something or somebody near the listener but far from the speaker
nār	that	for something or somebody far from both the listener and the speaker

Postpositions

Postposition show the role of the word in the sentences. They are always placed after the noun they modify.

Form	Name	English equivalent	Explanation
wa	Nominative -Subject		it marks the subject of the sentence
ā	Accusative -Object		it marks the direct object of the sentence
ū	Dative -Indirect object	to	it marks the indirect object of the sentence
dī	Genitive -Possession	of	it marks the possessor of something or an attributive relationship
ō	Instrument	with, by	it marks the instrument or means by or with which the subject achieves or performs the action
e	Comitative	with	it marks the person in whose company the action is carried out
se	Abessive	without	it marks the lack or absence of the marked noun
ab	Theme	about	it marks the theme, the matter we're talking about
bā	Essive-formal	like, as	it marks transmits of making a condition as a quality or a similarity

Numbers

Numbers are treated like adjectives and are always placed before nouns.

Number	Form
1	mē
2	xup
3	ci
4	vo
5	qo
6	bum
7	śo
8	rō
9	va
10	ty
100	sto
1000	qur
1000000	mil
1000000000	milar

To build the higher numbers place the units before the tens, the hundreds, the thousands, etc:

Number	Form
20	mēty
30	xupty
40	city
200	mēsto
300	xupsto
2000	mēqur
30000	xuptyqur
etc.

Compound numbers are built by placing the lesser number after the higher one:

Number	Form
11	ty mē
15	ty qo
23	xupty ci
145	sto voty qo
2156	xupqur sto qoty bum
1 259 978	mil xupsto qoty vaqur qosto śoty rō
etc.

Verbs

Verbs do not change according to time, aspect, mode, number, gender, etc. They are usually associated with grammar particles which convey the negation, the time, the aspect, the modality or the evidentiality of the action. No one of this particle are strictly mandatory if the context is clear enough to express these meanings.

The particles are strictly placed in this order:

Negation

-

Time

-

Verb form

-

Aspect

-

Mode

-

Evidentiality

Example:

• It seems they aren't looking for him right now: tȳn la tȳn nat mo qum sty vol nah

Negative particles

• nat: assertive negation, it negate an assertion, a question, a normal sentence
  • Ul ma piǵ kra, I can see you → Ul la nat piǵ kra, I cannot see you
• pē: prohibitive negation, it negate an order, expressing a prohibition
  • Ma tȳn ma snā dī do kāǵ si fa, Tell him what you know → Ma tȳn ma snā dī do pē kāǵ fa, Don't tell him what you know

Time particles

• ta: past, it locates the action in the past
• rā: remote past, it locates the action in the remote past, historical past or a past that we feel remote and far
• mo: present, it locates the action in the present, it is usually omitted, and when expressed it conveys the meaning of precise present "right now"
• fut: future, it locates the action in the future
• fu ta: future in the past, it locates the action in the (hypotetic) future of a past action (still in the past)
• ta fu: anterior future, it locates the action in the past of a future action (still in the future)

Time particles are often left out, expecially in direct speech, since the time of the action is usually inferred by the context. They are usually used in the first sentences of the speech to temporally localize the action or when omission may cause ambiguity.

Aspectual particles

• fa: perfective, it marks a completed action, with no regard for its effects or results
• ǵa: perfect, it marks a completed action which results are still affecting the moment we are talking about, (= English perfect tenses)
• sty: continous, it marks an uncompleted ongoing action in the moment we are talking about (= English continuous tenses)
• rē: repetitive, it marks an action which is repeated many times (= doing again, keep on doing again)
• sōl: habitual, it marks an action which is routinely or habitually performed (usually, used to)
• pyr: prospective, it marks an action which is about to start in the moment we are talking about (= to be about to)
• maj: experiencial, it marks the fact we have have or never have had experience of the action in the moment we are talking about (ever, never)

Modal particles

• vol: volitive, it conveys intention or will, going to, want
• des: octative, it conveys wish, want, wish, desire
• pos: potentive, it conveys ability, capability, can, know how
• kra: abilitial, it conveys a momentaneus ability, can
• ro: potential, it conveys possibility, may, might
• da: permissive, it conveys allowance, permission, may, allow to
• nec: necessity, it conveys an idea of necessity, must, it is necessary that, it is needed that
• ōb: jussive, it conveys an idea of obligation and duty, have to, to be forced to
• vā: causative, it marks that the action is caused by someone on someone/thing else, let, make, get, have
• kōm: incohative, it marks a beginning action, to begin, to start
• fōr: hypothetical, it marks the uncertainty of the action or that the action is/was/will be hypothetical, maybe, if
• si: imperative, to give orders (usually not used with the negative prohibitive particle).

Modal particles can be used in the same sentences together, since they conveys meanings which can be expressed in the same sentences. If there are two or more modal particles, they follow the order of the list above.

Evidential particles

• nah: reported action, the speaker does not personally see the action, the action is reported by someone else
• box: doubtful action, the speaker does not personally see the action, the action is reported by someone else, but the speaker expresses his/her doubt about its truthfulness
• kap: deduced action, the speaker does not personally see the action, but he/she deduces the action by seeing traces or evidences

Derivative morphology

As usual for an isolating language, words in Qihep can often be used as nouns, adjectives or verbs.

Example:

• Tȳn rȳs ta smāx fa, he kissed her
• Rȳs tȳn dī smāx nat vyūmbēl maj, she has never forgot his kiss

In the first sentence smāx, as in English, plays the role of verb, while in the second sentence it is a noun.

Other example:

• Ul ma mīl, I love you
• Rȳs ma dī mīl wīś sty, she wants your love
• Tyk mīl pej, this is a love song

In the first sentence mīl, as in English, plays the role of verb, while in the second sentence it is a noun and in the third one it is an adjective.

However some derivative suffixes can be added to the words to indicate a more precise meaning:

Verb → Noun

• -kȳt: it forms a noun indicating the concrete result of the action (almost corresponding to English -tion)
• -tan: it forms a noun indicating the ongoing process of the action (almost corresponding to English -ing)
• -mor: it forms a noun for the person who performs the action (corresponding to English -er)

Verb → Adjective

• -sy: it forms an adjective with a perfective passive meaning (almost corresponding to English -ed). Because of its passive meaning, it cannot be added to intransitive verbs.
  • ul la dī mīlsy tanvran, my beloved man

Noun/Adjective → Verb

• -skyt (to make): it forms a verb indicating that the object is made according to the meaning of the adjective or of the noun (almost corresponding to English -fy, to make)
  • mē, one + -skyt → mēskyt, to unite
• -bly (to become): it forms a verb indicating that the subject is becoming according to the meaning of the adjective or of the noun (almost corresponding to English to become, to get)

Syntax

Typologically speaking, Qihep is a strictly SOV language. That means that in the sentences the word order is unvariably Subject-Object-Verb.

• Subject - Object - Verb: Tȳn ma śak sty, He is following you

Word order is usually strictly respected, since words cannot show morphologically their role in the sentence (almost like in English).

Indirect object are usually placed before the direct object.

• Ul tȳn woroh nat kreś maj, I have never given him the key

Other members of the sentences are placed after the object, and they are mandatorily marked by postpositions, except from some adverbs clearly showing their meaning.

• Tȳn trojkȳtxep woroh ō ta āś fa, He opened the door with the key
• Ul tȳn woroh arbultsēd kreś fa, Yesterday I gave him the key

The order of the other elements of the sentence is not as strict as the main elements, but it usually follow the order Place-Manner-Time.

The word order of a Qihep sentence is thus this:

Subject - Indirect Object - Direct Object - Place - Manner - Temporal adverbs or construction - Verb system

Qihep is thus a consistently head-final language, which implies also other features:

• Adjective-Noun: adjectives are always placed before their nouns
• Genitive-Noun: genitive constructions are always placed before their nouns
• Noun-Postposition: there are only postpositions and no prepositions
• Relative-Noun: relative sentences are always placed before the noun they specify

Let's see an example of a sentence:

Wē ū le ma ul dī woroh arbultsēd kreś fa lo
who[IND.OBJ]-[TOP] you I[GEN]-key yesterday give[PER] [QUES]
Did you give my key yesterday to whom?

Genitive construction

Genitive constructions can specify any element of the sentence (except the verb cluster) and they are mandatorily placed before the element they specify.

When they convey a quality of the modified element, they are usually directly placed before their noun without any particle, as in English.

• Dīn vranvran, the population of the world, world population

When they convey a possession, they are usually marked with the genitive particle dī:

• Xūcmor dī kōr, the book of the student, the student's book
• Ul dī rof, My dog, The dog of mine

The genitive particle can be used to convey qualitative specification, in case of ambiguity:

• Nār vran dī byl, the city of that man, that man's city (the city does not belong to the man, but the simple juxtaposition would be ambiguous in a sentence; moreover the difference between attribute and possession is really difficult to distinguish in such sentences, as in English)

Topicalization

As usual for an isolating language, word order in Qihep is strictly respected. There is, however, a way to alter word order, expecially when it doesn't agree with the topic-comment order.

When the topic is not the subject but another element of the sentence, it can be moved in another position, usually at the first position of the sentence (but also the end of the sentece can be a possible position), or syntactically speaking, it can be topicalized. In this case the topicalizing particle le is mandatorily placed after the new topic element.

• Tȳn wū skyt sty lo, What is he doing? → wū le tȳn skyt sty lo, Is he doing what?

Since the topicalization process can obscure the grammatical role of the element, the element itself is usually marked by the corresponding postposition, even if it is the subject, the direct object or the indirect object. The postposition are left out only if ambiguity is not possible.

• Wē ā le ma ta piǵ fa lo, You saw who?, Who is the one who you saw?
• Wē ū le ma woroh ta kreś fa lo, You gave the key to whom?, Who is the one, who you gave the key?

The subject is usually already the topic of the information and would not need topicalizing. It can however be topicalized, with a meaning of intensification of the topic information.

• Wē le sluh krāx ǵa lo, Who is the one who has broken the vase?

The verbal cluster

The verbal cluster is placed at the end of the sentence. Its core is the verb itself, which conveys only the meaning of the action or the state and its intrinsic qualities, like transitivity, intransivity, etc.

The verbal cluster is usually considered as composed of these elements:

Negation

-

Time

-

Verb

-

Aspect

-

Mode

-

Evidentiality

The categories negation, time, aspect, mode, and evidentiality are expressed by grammatical particles. None of these particles is absolutely necessary, and none of this is mandatorily present, except for the verb itself.

Negation is usually considered part of the verbal cluster but it will be analysed separately, because of its different behaviour in the sentence.

Use of modal particles

Modal particles express verbal modality, describing a quality about the action or the state expressed by the verb. English has only two modes (or moods) and it relies on modal verbs to express the same meaning of Qihep modal particles.

The absence of any modal particles conveys the basic idea of an action or a state, the reality form, without any added information about wish, obligation, possibility, etc.

Modal particles are placed after the aspectual particles and before the evidential particles. Since it is possible for more that one modal particles to be present in a verbal cluster, they can be added in the following order.

Vol conveys an idea of will, intent, intention or the idea for a planned action

• Tȳn lāoh ta lā vol: He wanted to write a text (the subject had the intention to write the text, and it is almost sure he wrote it)
• Tȳn lāoh fut lā vol: He is going to write a text (he has the intention and has planned to write the text)

Des conveys the idea of wish, desire, crave or hope, but it doesn't give any information about intention or planning

• Tȳn lāoh fut lā des: He would like to write a text (the subject has the wishes to write the text, but we have no information if he has planned to do so)
• Tȳn lāoh ta lā des: He wished to write a text (the subject has the wishes to write the text, but it seemed unlikely that he wrote it)

Without any specific subject or with a subject that cannot feel wish, it can express a general hope for the action to get real (something like the English subjunctive with may):

• Dōb lāoh ā le fut lā fa des: May a good text be written (we hope that it will be this way)

Pos conveys an idea of ability, capability, that the subject knows how to do something, both an innate or a learnt capability.

• Tȳn nat lā pos: He cannot write (for example, because the subject is too young, and still does not know how to write)

Kra conveys an idea of a momentaneous ability, something that the subject can do in this moment, not a forever real capability.

• Tȳn nat lā kra sty: He cannot write (for example, the subject is too excited to write, too cold or too frightened, a momentaneous condition, but he knows how to write)

Ro conveys an idea of possibility, likelihood, potentiality of the action

• Tȳn lāoh fut lā ro: He may write a text (it will be possible for the subject to perform the action and likely will do it)
• Tȳn lāoh ta lā fa ro: He might have written a text (it was possible for the subject to perform the action and very likely has done it)

Da conveys an idea of allowance, permission, consent, approval

• Tȳn lāoh fut lā da: He can write a text (the subject has received permission to do it)
• Tȳn lāoh ta lā fa da: He was allowed write a text (the subject received permission to write, and very likely has done it)

Ōb conveys an idea of obligation, assigned duty or task, requirement

• Tȳn lāoh fut lā fa ōb: He has to write down a text (the subject has the obligation to write, not doing it on his own initiative)
• Tȳn lāoh ta lā ōb: He was compelled to write a text (the subject feto the obligation to write )

Nec conveys an idea of necessity, need, must

• Tȳn lāoh lā nec: He must write a text (the subject feel the need, on his own initiative, to write)
• Tȳn lāoh fut lā fa ōb: He needed to write down a text (the subject had the need to write the text, and likely has done it)

Vā conveys a causative sense, indicating that a subject causes someone or something to perform an action which was non-voluntarily (normally expressed in English by the auxiliary verbs let, make, get or have). Since a new performer of the action is introduced, the syntax of the sentence is reorganized. This will be analysed separately.

• Tȳn wa lāoh rȳs in ta lā fa vā: She made him write a text

Kōm conveys an incohative action, marking a beginning action

• Tȳn lāoh ta lā fa kōm: He began to write a text (the subject gets the action started)

Since the beginning action is inherently imperfective, aspectual particles with this modal particles refer to the aspects of the action of beginning, not the main action itself.

Fōr conveys an idea of hypothesis. It usually translate the concept of if, in the case that, maybe

• Tȳn lāoh ta lā fa fōr: In the case he could have written a text (we express the hypothesis the subject would have performed the action)

Use of evidential particles

Evidential particles express the nature of the evidence for a statement, if evidence exists for the action stated or the attitude of the speaker in relation to the reported information.

The absence of any evidential particle does not imply that the speaker has actually witnessed the reported action, but only that this information is not relevant for the speech. There is however no evidential particle to express eye-witness of the action and this must be deduced by the context or lexically expressed.

Evidential particles are placed after the aspectual and modal particles and are always the last element of the verbal cluster.

Nah conveys the idea of reported action, with a stress on the fact that the information is reported by someone else, and that the speaker (and not the subject of the action) has not personally witnessed the action.

• Ńikvran sluh ta krāx fa nah: I was told that someone broke the vase (The speaker has not seen the action nor the broken vase, but someone else has told him about what happened)

Box conveys an idea of doubt about the tale. The action is reported by someone else, and the speaker (and not the subject of the action) has not eye-witnessed either the action or any evidence about it and according to him/her the action is doubtful.

• Ńikvran sluh ta krāx fa box: It seems/I was told that someone might have broken the vase (The speaker has not seen the action nor the broken vase, someone else has told him about what happened, but he express a serious doubt about the reported action)

Kap conveys an idea of deduction, since the speaker (and not the subject) has not personally seen the action, but he/she has seen some evidences about the action and he/she deduces the action from these evidences.

• Ńikvran sluh ta krāx fa kap: Someone has broken the vase (The speaker has not seen the action, but he has found and seen the broken vase, and makes his own deduction about what happened)

Passive forms

Qihep verbs lack a passive form. In order to express a meaning similar to a passive forme, the object is moved to the first position of the sentence and is marked it with the accusative particle ā and with the topicalizing particle le. Since there is no real passivization, the agent of the action is not marked and is left in its subject position:

• Mew mīś ta fabej fa, the cat killed the mouse → mīś ā le mew ta fabej fa, the mouse was killed by the cat

If there is no agent, the subject is simply left unexpressed:

• Mīś ā le ta fabej fa, the mouse was killed

As in English, this the way to express the impersonal subject of other languages:

• Qīxēp ā le tykmeś xēp, Qihep is spoken here, in French: ici on parle qihep, in Italian qui si parla qihep, in German man spricht Qihep hier

Even if it is possible to form a passive adjective with the suffix -sy, this is never used as a verb, but only as an adjective.

• Mew fabejsy mīś ta cax fa, The cat ate the killed mouse

Locative verbs

Qihep lacks generic locative postpositions (the locative postpositions usually convey well defined and clear locative meanings, like near or towards). This is because there are locative verbs, which express the meaning of location or movement. This kind of verbs treat the location or the destination of the movement as their object, so they are marked by the simple position in the sentence.

• Ul xūcmeś ńik bultsēd bim sōl, I go to school every day
• Tȳn la Itālia ta sōlǵīv sōl, They used to live in Italy
• Ma wū stā lo, Where are you?

When a verb can express both the source and the destination of a movement, the source takes the place of the indirect object, while the destination is still the object of the verb.

• Ul frīnmeś dūm ta bim fa, She went home from the market

When the location or the destination need to be marked to avoid ambiguity or topicalized, they are marked with the object particle ā.

• Wū ā le rȳs stā lo, She is in which place?

When the source of movement needs to be marked to avoid ambiguity or topicalized, it is marked by postposition ud.

• Ul la Itālia ud ta qin fa, We came from Italy

When we want to express a locative expression in a sentence with another non-locative verbs, we have to use a relative sentence with a locative verb.

• Rōma ā dūqin ǵa dī ma la ā le ul la dōb topīk, Welcome to Rome!, (lit. We receive well you that you have come to Rome)
• Tȳn la nār sryńmeś ā stā sty dī xūckreśmor ta piǵ fa, They saw the professor in that shop (lit. They saw the professor who was in that shop)

Locative verbs
Verb	English
stā	to be in
bim	to go to
dōlbim	to go down to, to descend to
dūbim	to arrive to, to reach
unbim	to go in, to enter
vybim	to go out, to exit
qin	to come to
dōlqin	to come down to, to descend to
dūqin	to arrive to, to reach
unqin	to come in, to enter
vyqin	to come out, to exit
sōlǵīv	to live in

Subordinate clauses

Qihep lacks proper subordinating particles, as it considers subordinate as phrasal elements of the main sentence. Even if it might be possible to place this phrasal element inside the sentence, it is usually placed in the beginning or at end of the sentence, i.e before of after the main sentence.

Subjective and objective clauses

Subjective and objective clauses are marked respectively with the grammar particles for the subject, wa, and for the direct object, ā, placed after the verbal cluster. If they are placed before the main sentence, they are mandatorily marked with the topicalizing particle le, while if they are placed after the main sentence, le is not mandatory.

• Ma qin ǵa wa le śōn, it is beautiful that you have come
• Tȳn kāg fa upbultsēd klōj bim fa ā, he said it will rain tomorrow

Relative clauses

Qihep lacks proper relative pronouns, as it considers relative clauses as phrasal specifying elements, like a genitive phrasal element. The relative sentence is placed before the noun it specifies and it is marked by the genitive particle dī.

There is some difference, however, according to the role that the specified element plays in the relative clause:

When the specified element is the subject of the relative clause, it can be dropped, but the object must be mandatorily marked with the object particle ā:

• Ul tȳn Qīxēp ta xūckreś fa dī xūckreśmor ta unqum fa, I met the teacher who taught Qihep
• Ul Qīxēp ā ta xūckreś fa dī xūckreśmor ta unqum fa, I met the teacher who taught Qihep

When the specified element is the object of the relative clause, it can be dropped, and the subject can be marked with the subject particle wa, but this is not mandatory:

• Ul ma tȳn arbultsēd piǵ fa dī xūckreśmor ta unqum fa, I met the teacher whom you saw yesterday
• Ul ma wa arbultsēd piǵ fa dī xūckreśmor ta unqum fa, I met the teacher whom you saw yesterday
• Ul ma arbultsēd piǵ fa dī xūckreśmor ta unqum fa, I met the teacher whom you saw yesterday

When the specified element is the indirect object of the relative clause, the sentence is expressed as normal, but the indirect object pronoun is expressed by the corresponding personal pronoun and it can be marked by the dative particle ū, and the direct object with the object particle ā, expecially in case of ambiguity:

• Ul ma tȳn kōr ta kreś fa dī xūckreśmor ta unqum fa, I met the teacher whom you had given the book
• Ul ma tȳn ū kōr ta kreś fa dī xūckreśmor ta unqum fa, I met the teacher whom you had given the book
• Ul ma tȳn ū kōr ā ta kreś fa dī xūckreśmor ta unqum fa, I met the teacher whom you had given the book

When the specified element plays one of the other roles in the relative clause, the sentence is expressed as normal, the element is expressed by the corresponding personal pronoun and it is mandatorily marked by the corresponding particle:

• Ul ma tȳn ab ta xēp sty dī xūckreśmor ta unqum fa, I met the teacher whom you were talking about

The same process is used when the specified elements is in genitive construction (expressed in English by the relative pronoun whose) in the relative clause. The specified element is expressed by the corresponding personal pronoun and it is mandatorily marked by the genitive particle dī:

• Ul tȳn dī kōr śon dī xūckreśmor ta unqum fa, I met the teacher whose book is beautiful

Temporal clauses

There are two kinds of temporal clauses: those that refer to a single or precise moment, expressed by the word dān, moment, and those that refer to a longer period of time, expressed by the word tsēd, time.

This word are marked by the corresponding temporal grammar particles o, on, u, bī, and placed at the beginning or at the end of the sentence with the topicalizing particle le. The possibile temporal constructions are:

• Dān o le (in the moment when) or tsēd o le (in the period when) = when, while
• Dān u le (from the moment when) or tsēd u le (from the period when) = since
• Dān bī le (until the moment when) or tsēd bī le (until the period when) = until

The meaning of the construction is usually specified by the aspectual particles of the verb:

• Dān o le tȳn vybim fa tȳn tȳn la ta unqum fa, When he went out, he met them.
• Dān o le tȳn nōbim sty tȳn tȳn la ta unqum fa, While he was walking, he met them.

Purpose clauses

There are two ways of expressing a purpose clause:

1. The supine verbal suffix -vor is used and the clause is marked by the topicalizing particle le after the verbal cluster. The verbal form can be specified by modal and aspectual particles, but time particles are usually not used.

• Ul qin ǵa ul la śpomvor fa le, I've come to help you.

2. The purpose clause is marked by the construction tsel vor le, which can be placed at the beginning or at the end of the clause, and all verbal particles are used.

• Ul qin ǵa tsel vor le ul la śpom fa, I've come to help you.

Causative clauses

Causative clauses are marked by the construction prīc par le, which can be placed at the beginning or at the end of the clause.

• Xup nēmvran ta vēbeg fa prīc par le tyn la ā piǵ fa, the two thieves ran away, because they saw them.

Modal clauses

Modal clauses are marked by the construction cin bā le, which can be placed at the beginning or at the end of the clause.

• Ma kīn fa si cin bā le ma wiś, Do as you want!

Indirect interrogative clauses

Indirect interrogative clauses are marked in two ways:

If there is an interrogative pronoun or adverb, the sentence is placed before or after the noun without the interrogative particle lo:

• Ul nat snā wē ta vybim fa, I don't know who went out

If in the corrisponding direct question there is no interrogative pronoun or adverb, the sentence is placed before or after the verb with the interrogative particle lo in the right place:

• Ul nat snā rȳs ta vybim fa lo, I don't know if she went out

Indirect interrogative clauses can be marked with the object particle ā or the topicalizing particle le, but this is not mandatorily and they are usually used only in case of ambiguity, especially when the interrogative particle is placed before the main sentence.

• Ul nat snā rȳs wū ta kāǵ fa ā, I don't know who went out
• Ul tȳn ńikqem ta kāǵ fa ā le tȳn la nat snā , Whether I told him anything, they don't know

Conditional clauses

Conditional clauses are not explicity marked with a grammar particle nor with the topicalizing particle, but by the modal hypothetical particle fōr. Two sentences with verbs marked with fōr are meant as a conditional clause and its main clause:

• Tȳn la dōm fut bim fōr, ul tȳn la e fut bim fōr, If they went home, I would go with them.
• Tȳn do ta snā fa fōr, tȳn ma ta śpom fa fōr, If he had know, he would have helped you

The hypothetical particle fōr strictly marks an hypothesis, so it is not used when it's not an hyphotesis, but a state of fact:

• Bul tykmeś stā, pū nat, If there is the sun, it is not night

When the meaning of if is more temporal than an hypothesis, the clause is meant as temporal and not conditional:

• If you come, you'll see him (= When you come), Dān o le ma fut qin fa, ma tȳn fut piǵ fa
• If there is the sun, it is not night (= When there is no sun), Tsēd o le bul tykmeś stā, pū nat

When in the main clause there is an imperative form, the hypothetical particle can be dropped.

• Ma ȳd fut piǵ fa fōr, ma vēbeg fa si!, If you saw a snake, run away!

Lexycon

Dictionary

Main article: Qihep-English dictionary

Everyday lexycon

• Eh: Hi, Hello
• Ma dī ǵīv wūcin lo: How are you? (lit. How is your life?)
• Ul (la) ma (la) dōb topīk: Welcome (lit. I/we receive well you)

Texts

Lord's prayer

Ul la dī pāp, ma kōpdīn stā
Ma dī ńim ā śkedskyt des
Ma dī horvranmeś qin des
Ma dī wiś ā skyt des
Kōpdīn stā dī do i grūn stā dī do tykcin
Ma ul la tykbultsēd pām kreś fa si
Ī ma ul la dī smūś vorkreś si
Ul la ul la dī smūśmor mēmcin vorkreś fa
Ī ma ul la togrēxkūt to pē mūh
yt ma ul la śluk ud vrīskyt si
Āmen

Babel text

1. tsal dīn dī vranvran mē xēp rā xēp ī tȳn la mēm dum nuts sōl
2. tsēd o le xīs ud qin sty tȳn la Śinār lān stā dī sbēnlān qum fa ī nārmeś rā sōlǵīv fa kōm
3. ī tȳn la drug tȳn la rā kāǵ fa "ma la qin si ul la trojsās skyt fa si ī ul la qem la pīr ō qōc fa si" tȳn la sās ā skām fa dī trojsās i kāx ā skām fa dī trojkāx rā nūts fa
4. ī tȳn la rā kāǵ fa "ma la qin si ul la byl i qem dī fīp kōpdīn fut dūqin fa dī fītrojkȳt tsel vor le ul la dī ńīm snāsy bly fa ī ul la ā nat fut rasjēq fa"
5. ī Pō rā dōlqin fa vran dī denden troj sty dī byl i fītrojkȳt piǵvor fa
6. ī tȳn rā kāǵ fa "ma la piǵ fa si tȳn la mē vranvran ī mē xēp xēp sty tyn la do skyt ǵa kōm ī ńakmē tȳn la fut fajan fa kra tȳn la do skyt fa ud dī do ā le tȳn la skyt fa ā"
7. "ma la tyk prīc par qin si ul la dōlqin fa si ī ul la tȳn la dī xēp obmiś fa si tsel vor le tȳn la drug tȳn la dī xepsvūk nat fut enēm fa pos"
8. ī Pō tȳn la ńik lān to rā rasjēq fa ī tȳn la byl dī trojtan jan fa
9. tyk byl ā Bābel rā ńīmkreś fa prīc par le Pō tsal dīn dī xēp tykmeś ud rasjēq fa