Verbs in Vrkhazhian

Vrkhazhian verbs are called madsiṟud (singular madsiṟu). Because Vrkhazhian is a triconsonantal root language, the fundamental part of the verb form is the transfix, a discontinuous affix inserted between a root (which is collectively called masčišu and translated as "pattern"), though they primarily only convey the grammatical voices (active, passive, causative, and reflexive). There are five tenses (past, past progressive, present, present progressive, and future) and these are indicated by prefixes attached to the base form. There is only one aspect: the perfect, called saẕkeru, which is indicated by reduplicating the entire verb. Additionally, there are also five moods (indicative, jussive, subjunctive, commissive, and propositive) and these are also indicated by prefix, placed closer to the base form than the tense prefixes. Lastly, verbs are also conjugated for number, singular and plural, with the plural indicated by the suffix -am.

When referring to a particular verb pattern, they are referred to by a derivation of the canonical (exemplary) verb d-s-ṟ (to do, to perform, to execute, to act). For example, when referring to the verb pattern of the citation form of a verb, which is the active present singular indicative, it is called dusaṟ because that is the active present singular form of the verb.

Verb Patterns

Madsirən (Indicative)

This is the simplest basic form of a verb, it gives the general idea of its root.

d-s-r (to do, to act, to finish)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	dsarru		to do	dsarri		to be done
Past Realis	nudsur	nudasram	did	nidsir	nidasram	was done
Past Irrealis	yodsur	yodasram	might have done	yedsir	yedasram	might have been done
Present Realis	dasur	dasram	does	dasir	dasram	is done
Present Irrealis	hudsur	hudasram	might do	hidsir	hidasram	might be done
Future	ʾadsur	ʾadasram	will do	ʾedsir	ʾedasram	will be done

Madsirən (Causative)

This stem is formed by gemminating the middle root. The meaning this stem imparts is either causative.

d-s-r (to do, to act, to finish)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	dassarru		to activate	dassarri		to be activated
Past Realis	nudassur	nudassuram	activated	nidassir	nidassiram	was activated
Past Irrealis	yodassur	yodassuram	might have activated	yedassir	yedassir	might have been activated
Present Realis	dassur	dassuram	activates	dassir	dassiram	is activated
Present Irrealis	hudassur	hudassuram	might activate	hidassir	hidassiram	might be activated
Future	ʾadassur	ʾadassuram	will activate	ʾedassir	ʾedassiram	will be activated

Madsirən (Applicative)

This stem is formed by infixing -ah- after the second consonant of the root. The meaning this stem imparts is applicative, where an oblique object is promoted to direct object.

d-s-r (to do, to act, to finish)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	dsaharru		to outdo	dsaharri		to be outdone
Past Realis	nudsahur	nudsahuram	outdid	nidsahir	nidsahiram	was outdone
Past Irrealis	yodsahur	yodsahuram	might have outdone	yedsahir	yedsahir	might have been outdone
Present Realis	dasahur	dasahuram	outdoes	dasahir	dasahiram	is outdone
Present Irrealis	hudsahur	hudsahuram	might outdo	hidsahir	hidsahiram	might be outdone
Future	ʾadsahur	ʾadsahuram	will outdo	ʾedsahir	ʾedsahiram	will be outdone

Verb moods

Vrkhazhian has five moods, which are indicated by prefixed placed closer to the base form than the tense prefixes. These are the indicative, the jussive, the subjunctive, the commissive, and the propositive.

The indicative mood is the default mood of verbs and indicates what the speakers believes to be a statement of fact. The jussive mood is mainly used for expressing obligation or duty, but when there are no subject pronouns or nouns, it functions as the imperative mood, expressing direct commands to the adressee(s). The subjunctive mood expresses hypothetical actions or situations, primarily in that-clauses. Additionally, it can function as the optative mood, expressing a wish or desire. The commissive mood expresses a commitment to do something, like a promise or threat, and the propositive mood simply expresses suggestions or propositions.

d-s-r (to do, to act, to finish)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Directive	widsur	widasram	must do	widsir	widasram	must be done
Subjunctive	bidsur	bidasram	may do	bidsir	bidasram	may be done
Commissive	šədsur	šədasram	shall do	šədsir	šədasram	shall be done

Weak Verbs

Verbs are considered weak if the root contains a weak radical, which are called called haẏwan. These weak radicals are ⟨y⟩, ⟨w⟩, and ⟨h⟩. Weak verbs have different morphophonological properties depending on the position of the radical with respect to the other radicals. Verbs where the first radical is weak are called madsiran šṛšaman ("strengthened verbs") because the consonants ⟨y⟩ and ⟨w⟩, having the phonemic value of /j w/, are fortified to [ʝ β]. The exception to this is if there is an /a/ or /e/ preceding them, where they become non-syllabic vowels instead. Verbs where the second radical is weak are called madsiran mṛḵapan ("hollow verbs") because the weak consonants are converted to their vocalic counterparts: ⟨y w⟩ become /i u/ with ⟨h⟩ unaffected. An exception to this is in the case of gemination whereby they are fortified just like strengthened verbs. Lastly, verbs where the third radical is weak are called madsiran ṗṛšašan ("cut verbs") because, like hollow verbs, the weak consonants are converted to their vocalic counterparts, thus making the verb end in a vowel.

Strengthened Verbs

w-d-d (to cover)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	ʾeẇdaddu		to cover	ʾeẇdaddi		to be covered
Past Realis	nuwdud	nuwaddam	covered	niwdid	niwaddam	was covered
Past Irrealis	yowdud	yowaddam	would have covered	yeẇdid	yewaddam	would have been covered
Present Realis	wadud	waddam	cover	wadid	waddam	is covered
Present Irrealis	huwdud	huwaddam	would cover	hiwdid	hiwaddam	would be covered
Future	ʾaẇdud	ʾawaddam	will cover	ʾeẇdid	ʾewaddam	will be covered

Hollow Verbs

t-y-l (to destroy)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	ʾetyallu		to destroy	ʾetyalli		to be destroyed
Past Realis	nutyul	nutyulam	destroyed	nitil	nitilam	was destroyed
Past Irrealis	yotyul	yotyulam	would have destroyed	yetil	yetilam	would have been destroyed
Present Realis	til	taẏlam	destroy	til	taẏlam	is destroyed
Present Irrealis	hutyul	hutyulam	would destroy	hitil	hitilam	would be destroyed
Future	ʾatyul	ʾatyulam	will destroy	ʾetil	ʾetilam	will be destroyed

Cut Verbs

n-š-y (to want, to desire)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	ʾenšayyu		to want	ʾenšayyi		to be wanted
Past Realis	nunši	nunašyam	wanted	ninši	ninašyam	was wanted
Past Irrealis	yonši	yonašyam	would have wanted	yenši	yenašyam	would have been wanted
Present Realis	naši	našyam	want	naši	našyam	is wanted
Present Irrealis	hunši	hunašyam	would want	hinši	hinašyam	would be wanted
Future	ʾanši	ʾanašyam	will want	ʾenši	ʾenašyam	will be wanted

Vrkhazhian as a secundative language

Unlike most languages, Vrkhazhian has a secundative alignment with regards to ditransitive verbs. This means that the recipient of a verb is treated like the patient of a transitive verb rather than the theme. The theme is indicated with the instrumental prefix sa-.

Below is an example, in the active voice:

ṛ-ʾUlda ṛ-tuhazi palul sabeda.

ṛ-ʾUlda	ṛ-tuhazi	palul	sabeda
DEF-soldier-NOM.FEM.SG	DEF-man-ACC.MASC.SG	give\ACT.PRES.SG	book-INS-FEM.SG

"The guard gives the man a book."

In the passive voice, the recipient is promoted to subject, rather than the theme:

Palil sabeda ṛ-hazi ʾim ṛ-ʾulda.

Palil	sabeda	ṛ-hazi	ʾim	ṛ-ʾulda
give\PASS.PRES.SG	book-INS-FEM.SG	DEF-man-NOM.MASC.SG	by	DEF-soldier-FEM.SG

"The man is given a book by the guard."