Verbs in Vrkhazhian

Vrkhazhian verbs are called madsiṟud (singular madsiṟu). Because Vrkhazhian is a triconsonantal root language, the fundamental part of the verb form is the transfix, a discontinuous affix inserted between a root (which is collectively called masčišu and translated as "pattern"), though they primarily only convey the grammatical voices (active, passive, causative, and reflexive). There are five tenses (past, past progressive, present, present progressive, and future) and these are indicated by prefixes attached to the base form. There is only one aspect: the perfect, called saẕkeru, which is indicated by reduplicating the entire verb. Additionally, there are also five moods (indicative, jussive, subjunctive, commissive, and propositive) and these are also indicated by prefix, placed closer to the base form than the tense prefixes. Lastly, verbs are also conjugated for number, singular and plural, with the plural indicated by the suffix -am.

When referring to a particular verb pattern, they are referred to by a derivation of the canonical (exemplary) verb d-s-ṟ (to do, to perform, to execute, to act). For example, when referring to the verb pattern of the citation form of a verb, which is the active present singular indicative, it is called dusaṟ because that is the active present singular form of the verb.

Verb Patterns

Madsirən (Indicative)

This is the simplest basic form of a verb, it gives the general idea of its root.

d-s-r (to do, to act, to finish)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	dsarru		to do	dsarri		to be done
Past Realis	nudsur	nudasram	did	nidsir	nidasram	was done
Past Irrealis	yodsur	yodasram	might have done	yedsir	yedasram	might have been done
Present Realis	dasur	dasram	does	dasir	dasram	is done
Present Irrealis	hadsur	hadasram	might do	hedsir	hedasram	might be done
Future	ʾadsur	ʾadasram	will do	ʾedsir	ʾedasram	will be done

Madsirən (Reflexive)

This stem is formed by prefixing an -l-, which is dissimilated to -z- near another ⟨l⟩, between the base form and the tense prefix. The meaning this stem imparts is reflexive. The passive voice of the stem can only occur with ditransitive verbs.

ʾ-p-l (to relinquish, to give up)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	loʾpallu		to relinquish oneself	loʾpalli		to be relinquished oneself
Past Realis	nulʾapul	nulʾaplam	relinquished oneself	nilʾapil	nilʾaplam	was relinquished oneself
Past Irrealis	yolʾapul	yolʾaplam	might have relinquished oneself	yelʾapil	yelʾaplam	might have been relinquished oneself
Present Realis	laʾpul	loʾaplam	relinquishes oneself	laʾpil	loʾaplam	is relinquished oneself
Present Irrealis	halʾapul	halʾaplam	might relinquish oneself	helʾapil	helʾaplam	might be relinquished oneself
Future	ʾalʾapul	ʾalʾaplam	will relinquish oneself	ʾelʾapil	ʾelʾaplam	will be relinquished oneself

Madsirən (Causative)

This stem is formed by gemminating the middle root. The meaning this stem imparts is causative.

d-s-r (to do, to act, to finish)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	dassarru		to activate	dassarri		to be activated
Past Realis	nudassur	nudassuram	activated	nidassir	nidassiram	was activated
Past Irrealis	yodassur	yodassuram	might have activated	yedassir	yedassir	might have been activated
Present Realis	dassur	dassuram	activates	dassir	dassiram	is activated
Present Irrealis	hadassur	hudassuram	might activate	hedassir	hedassiram	might be activated
Future	ʾadassur	ʾadassuram	will activate	ʾedassir	ʾedassiram	will be activated

Madsirən (Reflexive Causative)

This stem is formed by geminating the middle root and prefixing an -l-, which is dissimilated to -z- near another ⟨l⟩, between the base form and the tense prefix. The meaning this stem imparts is autocausative. In the active voice it either indicates the subject is making itself do an action, or in the case of attributive verbs (e.g. to be X), it indicates that the subject becomes the attribute. In the passive voice, it either indicates that the subject is made to do an action to itself, or it simply indicates the subject undergoes a change of state.

d-s-r (to do, to act, to finish)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	lodassarru		to make oneself do	lodassarri		to make oneself be done
Past Realis	nuldassur	nuldassuram	made oneself do	nildassir	nildassiram	made oneself be done
Past Irrealis	yoldassur	yoldassuram	might have made oneself do	yeldassir	yeldassir	might have made oneself be done
Present Realis	lodassur	lodassuram	makes oneself do	lodassir	lodassiram	makes oneself be done
Present Irrealis	haldassur	huldassuram	might make oneself do	heldassir	heldassiram	might make oneself be done
Future	ʾaldassur	ʾaldassuram	will make oneself do	ʾeldassir	ʾeldassiram	will make oneself be done

Verb moods

Vrkhazhian has five moods, which are indicated by prefixed placed closer to the base form than the tense prefixes. These are the indicative, the jussive, the subjunctive, the commissive, and the propositive.

The indicative mood is the default mood of verbs and indicates what the speakers believes to be a statement of fact. The jussive mood is mainly used for expressing obligation or duty, but when there are no subject pronouns or nouns, it functions as the imperative mood, expressing direct commands to the adressee(s). The subjunctive mood expresses hypothetical actions or situations, primarily in that-clauses. Additionally, it can function as the optative mood, expressing a wish or desire. The commissive mood expresses a commitment to do something, like a promise or threat, and the propositive mood simply expresses suggestions or propositions.

d-s-r (to do, to act, to finish)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Jussive	widsur	widasram	must do	widsir	widasram	must be done
Subjunctive	bidsur	bidasram	may do	bidsir	bidasram	may be done
Commissive	šədsur	šədasram	shall do	šədsir	šədasram	shall be done

Weak Verbs

Verbs are considered weak if the root contains a weak radical, which are called called haẏwan. These weak radicals are ⟨y⟩, ⟨w⟩, and ⟨h⟩. Weak verbs have different morphophonological properties depending on the position of the radical with respect to the other radicals. Verbs where the first radical is weak are called madsiran šṛšaman ("strengthened verbs") because the consonants ⟨y⟩ and ⟨w⟩, having the phonemic value of /j w/, are fortified to [ʝ β]. The exception to this is if there is an /a/ or /e/ preceding them, where they become non-syllabic vowels instead. Verbs where the second radical is weak are called madsiran mṛḵapan ("hollow verbs") because the weak consonants are converted to their vocalic counterparts: ⟨y w⟩ become /i u/ with ⟨h⟩ unaffected. An exception to this is in the case of gemination whereby they are fortified just like strengthened verbs. Lastly, verbs where the third radical is weak are called madsiran ṗṛšašan ("cut verbs") because, like hollow verbs, the weak consonants are converted to their vocalic counterparts, thus making the verb end in a vowel.

Strengthened Verbs

w-d-d (to cover)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	ʾeẇdaddu		to cover	ʾeẇdeddi		to be covered
Past Realis	nuwdad	nuwdadam	covered	niwded	niwdedam	was covered
Past Prog.	yowdad	yowdadam	was covering	yeẇded	yeẇdedam	was being covered
Past Irrealis	ćaẇdad	ćaẇdadam	would have covered	ćeẇded	ćeẇdedam	would have been covered
Present Realis	wudad	wuddam	cover	waded	waddam	is covered
Present Prog.	huwdad	huwdadam	is covering	hiwded	hiwdedam	is being covered
Present Irrealis	ẕuwdad	ẕuwdadam	would cover	ẕiwded	ẕiwdedam	would be covered
Future Realis	ṇtaẇdad	ṇtaẇdadam	will cover	ṇteẇded	ṇteẇdedam	will be covered
Future Irrealis	ʾaẇdad	ʾaẇdadam	might cover	ʾeẇded	ʾeẇdedam	might be covered

Hollow Verbs

t-y-l (to destroy)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	ʾetyallu		to destroy	ʾetyelli		to be destroyed
Past Realis	nutil	nutilam	destroyed	nitil	nitilam	was destroyed
Past Prog.	yotil	yotilam	was destroying	yetil	yetilam	was being destroyed
Past Irrealis	ćatil	ćatilam	would have destroyed	ćetil	ćetilam	would have been destroyed
Present Realis	til	tilam	destroy	til	tilam	is destroyed
Present Prog.	hutil	hutilam	is destroying	hitil	hitilam	is being destroyed
Present Irrealis	ẕutil	ẕutilam	would destroy	ẕitil	ẕitilam	would be destroyed
Future Realis	ṇtatil	ṇtatilam	will destroy	ṇtetil	ṇtetilam	will be destroyed
Future Irrealis	ʾatil	ʾatilam	might destroy	ʾetil	ʾetilam	might be destroyed

Cut Verbs

n-š-y (to want, to desire)

	Active Singular	Active Plural	Translation	Passive Singular	Passive Plural	Translation
Infinitive	ʾenšayyu		to want	ʾenšeyyi		to be wanted
Past Realis	nunši	nunšayam	wanted	ninši	ninšeyam	was wanted
Past Prog.	yonši	yonšayam	was wanting	yenši	yenšeyam	was being wanted
Past Irrealis	ćanši	ćanšayam	would have wanted	ćenši	ćenšeyam	would have been wanted
Present Realis	nuši	nušyam	want	naši	našyam	is wanted
Present Prog.	hunši	hunšayam	is wanting	hinši	hinšeyam	is being wanted
Present Irrealis	ẕunši	ẕunšayam	would want	ẕinši	ẕinšeyam	would be wanted
Future Realis	ṇtanši	ṇtanšayam	will want	ṇtenši	ṇtenšeyam	will be wanted
Future Irrealis	ʾanši	ʾanšayam	might want	ʾenši	ʾenšeyam	might be wanted

Vrkhazhian as a secundative language

Unlike most languages, Vrkhazhian has a secundative alignment with regards to ditransitive verbs. This means that the recipient of a verb is treated like the patient of a transitive verb rather than the theme. The theme is indicated with the instrumental prefix sa-.

Below is an example, in the active voice:

ṛ-ʾUlda ṛ-tuhazi palul sabeda.

ṛ-ʾUlda	ṛ-tuhazi	palul	sabeda
DEF-soldier-NOM.FEM.SG	DEF-man-ACC.MASC.SG	give\ACT.PRES.SG	book-INS-FEM.SG

"The guard gives the man a book."

In the passive voice, the recipient is promoted to subject, rather than the theme:

Palil sabeda ṛ-hazi ʾim ṛ-ʾulda.

Palil	sabeda	ṛ-hazi	ʾim	ṛ-ʾulda
give\PASS.PRES.SG	book-INS-FEM.SG	DEF-man-NOM.MASC.SG	by	DEF-soldier-FEM.SG

"The man is given a book by the guard."