pa'a

	na'o	ta'o	ha'o
plosive pana (rain)	pa	ta	ka
nasal maua (flower)	ma	na	nya
affricate tlatsa (fire)	tsa	tla
continuant honu (turtle)	sa	ha	la
semivowel yasa (wind)	ua	ya	a

noun phrases

The basic noun phrase in Kala is PREPOSITION DETERMINER RELATIVE-CLAUSE NOUN DESCRIPTIVE-VERB. Depending on context, this is fairly predominant with a few exceptions

opinion-size-age-shape-color-origin-material-purpose Noun

ukum


Kala	number	English	ordinal	multiple	fractional
na'o	1	one	kina'o first	tina'o once	-
ueta'o	12	twelve	kiueta'o twelfth	tiueta'o twelve times	iueta'o a twelfth
yauema'o yama'o	54	fifty four	kiyama'o fifty fourth	tiyama'o 54 times	iyama'o a fifty fourth
nyetsa'o	106	one hundred (and) six	kinyetsa'o 106^th	tinyetsa'o 106 times	inyetsa'o a 106^th
katle'o	7000	seven thousand	kikatle'o seven thousandth	tikatle'o 7000 times	ikatle'o 1/7000

genitive

	singular	plural
1	nai	kai
2	tai	ai
3	lai	mai

Derivational morphology

Noun → adjective: Suffix: -un
Adjective → noun: Suffix: -iya
Noun → verb: Suffix: -ek / -ra
Verb → noun: Suffix: -a / a-
Verb → adjective: Suffix: -u
Adjective → adverb: Suffix: -ha / -ak
One who X's (e.g. paint → painter): Suffix: -in
Place where (e.g. wine → winery): Suffix: -da
Diminutive: Suffix: -XX
Augmentative: Suffix: -XX

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subject/object

s/o	-	1s	2s	3s	1p	2p	3p
1s	-an	-	-anti	-anu	-anuk	-anut	-anum
2s	-ti	-eyan	-	-eyu	-eyuk	-eyut	-eyum
3s	-u	-ilan	-ati	-ilu	-iluk	-ilut	-ilum
1p	-uk	-ukan	-ukti	-uku	-	-ukut	-ukum
2p	-ut	-utan	-ute	-utu	-utuk	-	-utum
3p	-um	-uman	-umti	-umu	-umuk	-umut	-

verb conju

**Tense/Aspect suffixes**
Name	Suffix	Example	English Gloss	Other Examples	English Gloss
Simple Present	-	bew-an	I bring	ary-an	I see
Present Perfect	-eh-	bew-eh-an	I have brought
Present Obligatory	-	-	I am obliged to bring	-	we are obliged to warn
Simple Past	-esh-	bew-esh-an	I brought	-	it was, I viewed
Immediate Past	-	-	I just brought
Past Perfect	-	-	I had brought
Simple Future	-ur-	beweq-ur-an	I will bring	-	you will find
Future Possible	-	-	I may bring	-	they may help
Future Perfect	-	-	I will have brought	-	you will have found
Future Obligatory	-	-	I will be obliged to bring	-	you will be obliged to find

word gen kala

C=ptkmnshcxl
N=bdg
A=aeiou
W=12
Y=345
P=pkmnh
S=pkmnhsc

c|ts
x|tl
b|mp
d|nt
g|nk
1|ua
2|ue
3|ya
4|ye
5|yo
tu|ta
lu|la

CA
CACA
CANA
CAPY
CASW
CAW
CAY
NA
NACA
NAPY
NASW
NAW
NAY
PY
PYCA
PYNA
PYSW
SW
SWCA
SWNA
SWPY
WCA
WNA
YCA
YNA

tense

	present	past	future
simple	-e	-i	-o
perfect	-le	-li	-lo
obligatory	-se		-so
immediate		-ib
possible			-go

case

man - amul	singular	dual	plural
nominative	amul man	mulik the (two) men	mulim the men
accusative	mulwa man	mulikwa (two) men	mulimwa men
genitive	mulya man's	mulikai (two) men's	mulimya men's
dative	bimul to [a/the] man	bimulik to [the] (two) men	bimulim to [the] men
locative	muleda in/at/by [the/a] man	mulikeda in/at/by [the] (two) men	mulimda in/at/by [the] men
ablative	mulesha from/off of [the/a] man	muliksha from/off of [the] (two) men	mulimsha from/off of [the] men
comitative	mulha with/by/through/using [the/a] man	mulikha with/by/through/using [the] (two) men	mulimak with/by/through/using [the] men

case 2

**Grammatical Cases**
Name	Suffix	Example	English Gloss
Nominative	-	eqesh	the house (subject).
Accusative	-wa / -u	eshwa	the house (object).
Dative	bi-	biqesh	for, to, on behalf of the house
Ablative	-sha / -ásh	essha	from the house
Genitive	-ya / -ai	eshai	of the house
Locative	-da / -ad	eshda	at, in, on the house
Instrumental/Comitative	-ha / -ak	eshak	using/with the house

format

muku

/muːˈkʊ/

knife; blade; weapon; arms

"sword"

malo

pronouns

wa- - first person
ni- - second person
ko- - third person

plural not marked

verbs

ta - be; exist
na - see; look; know
yema - eat; drink
ya - have; possess

nouns

no - eye; sight; vision
yemo - food; sustenance

evidentiality

Example	Translation	Evidential
hi·dawʔaƛwa·d	"I hear he found it"	-wa·t, hearsay
pu·pu·q̓adʔi	"he's blowing a whistle"	-q̓adi, auditory
č̓apaccaqil	"It looks like a canoe"	-caqił, uncertain visual evidence, as trying to make out something at a distance
haʔuk̓aƛpi·dic	"I see you ate"	-pi·t, inference from physical evidence
dudu·k̓aƛx̌a·š	"He's probably singing"	-x̌a·-š, inferred probability

nkalu


	Static	example	Motive	example
nahe	inside; within	yetsi ke sala nahe The chair is in the room.	into	kam ke sala nahelaye We entered the room.
nyaue	outside; exterior	ito ke tsaka nyaue The tree is outside the house.	out of	ya neko ke tsayo nyauemya Take the cat out of the car.
ua'e	on; upon; above	tanu ke yempa ua'e The dish is upon the table.	onto; upon	mita ke topa ua'ela The dog gets onto the bed.
kaye	around; surrounding	muana ke kama kaye The city surrounds the city.	around; about	naka ke kamahi kayela The woman is walking about the village.
nahe	inside; within	yetsi ke sala nahe The chair is in the room.	into	kam ke sala nahelaye We entered the room.
2pl	tlam	etlam	tlami	tlamyo
3pl	tlam	etlam	tlami	tlamyo
4pl	tlam	etlam	tlami	tlamyo

Morphosyntax

Simple declarative sentences usually have a subject-object-verb word order, though occasionally adverbs fall outside this paradigm and various particles can free-up word order. Kala has four grammatical persons — first, second, third, and obviative. The third person is used for proximate nouns, while obviates are non-present or demoted in comparison to a third person. Inanimate objects cannot be the proximate third person. Kala is an agglutinative language. It uses various affixes, mostly suffixes, to change the meaning and grammatical function of words.

Nouns are inflected for number.

animacy

All nouns are classified as either animate or inanimate. Generally it is easy to determine whether a noun will be animate, although some inherently inanimate objects such as...

Arguments of verbs are marked with a (patient marker) transitivity prefix/particle which must agree with the animacy of its arguments. Even in stories in which a grammatically inanimate object are markedly anthropomorphized, such as talking flowers, speakers will not use animate agreement markers with them.

verbs

The Kala verbal template contains a stem with several suffixes. The structure of the verb stem in Kala can be roughly broken down into the root, the medial, and the final. The root and final tend to be required elements. In Kala, the category of verb may also include words that would be categorized as adjectives or quantifiers in English.