User:Masako/sandbox
pa'a
| na'o | ta'o | ha'o | |
|---|---|---|---|
| plosive pana (rain) |
pa | ta | ka |
| nasal maua (flower) |
ma | na | nya |
| affricate tlatsa (fire) |
tsa | tla | |
| continuant honu (turtle) |
sa | ha | la |
| semivowel yasa (wind) |
ua | ya | a |
noun phrases
The basic noun phrase in Kala is PREPOSITION DETERMINER NOUN DESCRIPTIVE-VERB RELATIVE-CLAUSE. Depending on context, this is fairly predominant with a few exceptions
- opinion-size-age-shape-color-origin-material-purpose Noun
ukum
| Kala | number | English | ordinal | multiple | fractional |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| na'o | 1 | one | kina'o first |
tina'o once |
- |
| ueta'o | 12 | twelve | kiueta'o twelfth |
tiueta'o twelve times |
iueta'o a twelfth |
| yauema'o yama'o |
54 | fifty four | kiyama'o fifty fourth |
tiyama'o 54 times |
iyama'o a fifty fourth |
| nyetsa'o | 106 | one hundred (and) six | kinyetsa'o 106th |
tinyetsa'o 106 times |
inyetsa'o a 106th |
| katle'o | 7000 | seven thousand | kikatle'o seven thousandth |
tikatle'o 7000 times |
ikatle'o 1/7000 |
conjunctions
akana.conlang.org/wiki/C%C9%99ss%C4%B1n#Conjunctions
| Coordinating conjunctions | |
|---|---|
| ma | used to link nouns |
| ku | used to link clauses and phrases |
| na'o | 1 |
| na'o | 1 |
| na'o | 1 |
pi - although; even though; even if ku - and; also; too; as well [CONJ] {clause level] ma / -m / -lo - and; also; too; as well [CONJ] ehe [me] - but; yet; however impo - therefore; as a result; so; consequently; thus ua - or; either ue - either X or Y uenke [uek] - neither X nor Y yatli - if X then Y yema - both X and Y
genitive
| singular | plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | nai | kai |
| 2 | tiya | tai |
| 3 | ai | mai |
Derivational morphology
- Noun → adjective: Suffix: -XX
- Adjective → noun: Suffix: -XX
- Noun → verb: Suffix: -XX
- Verb → noun: Suffix: -XX
- Verb → adjective: Suffix: -XX
- Adjective → adverb: Suffix: -XX
- One who X's (e.g. paint → painter): Suffix: -in
- Place where (e.g. wine → winery): Suffix: -XX
- Diminutive: Suffix: -XX
- Augmentative: Suffix: -XX
subject/object
| s/o | - | 1s | 2s | 3s | 1p | 2p | 3p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s | -an | - | -anti | -anu | -anuk | -anut | -anum |
| 2s | -ti | -eyan | - | -eyu | -eyuk | -eyut | -eyum |
| 3s | -u | -ilan | -ati | -ilu | -iluk | -ilut | -ilum |
| 1p | -uk | -ukan | -ukti | -uku | - | -ukut | -ukum |
| 2p | -ut | -utan | -ute | -utu | -utuk | - | -utum |
| 3p | -um | -uman | -umti | -umu | -umuk | -umut | - |
verb conju
| Name | Suffix | Example | English Gloss | Other Examples | English Gloss |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Simple Present | - | bew-an | I bring | ary-an | I see |
| Present Perfect | -eh- | bew-eh-an | I have brought | ||
| Present Obligatory | - | - | I am obliged to bring | - | we are obliged to warn |
| Simple Past | -esh- | bew-esh-an | I brought | - | it was, I viewed |
| Immediate Past | - | - | I just brought | ||
| Past Perfect | - | - | I had brought | ||
| Simple Future | -ur- | beweq-ur-an | I will bring | - | you will find |
| Future Possible | - | - | I may bring | - | they may help |
| Future Perfect | - | - | I will have brought | - | you will have found |
| Future Obligatory | - | - | I will be obliged to bring | - | you will be obliged to find |
hangul
However, Hangul is the primary script for Kala and is used in this grammar description, therefore, what follows is a cursory explanation of how Hangul is adapted for Kala.
Han Moya
Han Moya is an adaptation of Hangul for writing Kala. It is written horizontally, in lines running from left to right. It can also be written vertically in columns.
Consonants
- ㄱㄲㄴㄷㄸㄹㅁㅂㅃㅅㅆㅇㅈㅉㅊㅋㅌㅍㅎ
- k nk n t nt l m p mp s ns a ts nts ts` k` tl p` h
- /k~g ᵑk~ⁿg n t~d ⁿt~ⁿd l~ɾ m p~b ᵐp~ᵐb s~ʃ ⁿs~ⁿʃ - ts~t͡ʃ ⁿts~ⁿt͡ʃ tsʰ~t͡ʃʰ kʰ t͡ɬ~tl pʰ h~ɦ/
The adaptations of doubled consonants are used word initially to indicate prenasalization. Medial occurrences of nasalized syllables are written across syllables.
Vowels
- ㅏ ᅶ ㅐ ㅑ ᅸ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅛ ㅜ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ
- a ao ai ya yao e ye o ao yo ua uai ue u i
- /a~a: aʊ̯ aɪ̯ ja~ʲa: jaʊ̯~ʲaʊ̯ e~ɛ je~ʲɛ o~o: jo~ʲo: wa~ʷa: waɪ̯~ʷaɪ̯ we~ʷe: u~u: i~ɪ/
- ㅘ This is pronounced /we/ in Korean because of the order of the vowels; however, because obsolete jamo are difficult to type and look junky as images, in Kala, this is used for /aʊ̯/ when typing. It is rarely seen due to the diphthong itself being uncommon.
tense
| present | past | future | |
|---|---|---|---|
| simple | -e | -i | -o |
| perfect | -le | -li | -lo |
| obligatory | -se | -so | |
| immediate | -ib | ||
| possible | -go |
format
- muku
- /muːˈkʊ/
- knife; blade; weapon; arms
- "sword"
evidentiality
| Example | Translation | Evidential |
|---|---|---|
| hi·dawʔaƛwa·d | "I hear he found it" | -wa·t, hearsay |
| pu·pu·q̓adʔi | "he's blowing a whistle" | -q̓adi, auditory |
| č̓apaccaqil | "It looks like a canoe" | -caqił, uncertain visual evidence, as trying to make out something at a distance |
| haʔuk̓aƛpi·dic | "I see you ate" | -pi·t, inference from physical evidence |
| dudu·k̓aƛx̌a·š | "He's probably singing" | -x̌a·-š, inferred probability |
nkalu
| Agent nominative |
Patient accusative |
Reflexive | Possessive genitive |
Reciprocal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | na I |
ena me |
na'i myself |
nayo my; mine |
|
| 2sg | ta you (thou) |
eta you (thee) |
ta'i yourself |
tayo your(s) |
|
| 3sg | ha he/she |
eha him/her |
ha'i himself/herself |
hayo his/her(s) |
|
| 4sg | tla it/one |
etla it (one) |
tla'i itself/oneself |
tlayo its/one's |
|
| 1pl 1pl EXCL |
nam we na'am we (not you) |
enam ena'am |
nami na'ami |
namyo na'amyo |
nanku na'anku |
| 2pl | tam you (all) |
etam you (all) |
tami yourselves |
tamyo your(s) |
tanku you (each other) |
| 3pl | kam | ekam | kami | kamyo | kanku |
| 4pl | tlam | etlam | tlami | tlamyo | tlanku |
Morphosyntax
- Simple declarative sentences usually have a subject-object-verb word order, though occasionally adverbs fall outside this paradigm and various particles can free-up word order. Kala has four grammatical persons — first, second, third, and obviative. The third person is used for proximate nouns, while obviates are non-present or demoted in comparison to a third person. Inanimate objects cannot be the proximate third person. Kala is an agglutinative language. It uses various affixes, mostly suffixes, to change the meaning and grammatical function of words.
Nouns are inflected for number.
animacy
All nouns are classified as either animate or inanimate. Generally it is easy to determine whether a noun will be animate, although some inherently inanimate objects such as...
Arguments of verbs are marked with a (patient marker) transitivity prefix/particle which must agree with the animacy of its arguments. Even in stories in which a grammatically inanimate object are markedly anthropomorphized, such as talking flowers, speakers will not use animate agreement markers with them.
verbs
The Kala verbal template contains a stem with several suffixes. The structure of the verb stem in Kala can be roughly broken down into the root, the medial, and the final. The root and final tend to be required elements. In Kala, the category of verb may also include words that would be categorized as adjectives or quantifiers in English.
Examples
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